Cross-chain bridges are essential decentralized applications (DApps) to facilitate interoperability between different blockchain networks. Unlike regular DApps, the functionality of cross-chain bridges relies on the collaboration of information both on and off the chain, which exposes them to a wider risk of attacks. According to our statistics, attacks on cross-chain bridges have resulted in losses of nearly 4.3 billion since 2021. Therefore, it is particularly necessary to understand and detect attacks on cross-chain bridges. In this paper, we collect the largest number of cross-chain bridge attack incidents to date, including 49 attacks that occurred between June 2021 and September 2024, of which 22 were attacks on cross-chain bridge business logic. Our analysis reveal that attacks against cross-chain business logic cause significantly more damage than those that do not. These cross-chain attacks exhibit different patterns compared to normal transactions in terms of call structure, which effectively indicates potential attack behaviors. Given the significant losses in these cases and the scarcity of related research, this paper aims to detect attacks against cross-chain business logic, and propose the BridgeGuard tool. Specifically, BridgeGuard models cross-chain transactions from a graph perspective, and employs a two-stage detection framework comprising global and local graph mining to identify attack patterns in cross-chain transactions. We conduct multiple experiments on the datasets with 203 attack transactions and 40,000 normal cross-chain transactions. The results show that BridgeGuard's reported recall score is 36.32% higher than that of state-of-the-art tools and can detect unknown attack transactions.
Open access
2 source records
cs.CR
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
This chapter delves into the future of the complex and evolving world of non-fungible tokens (NFTs), focusing on their potential to drive mass adoption of blockchain technology. Beginning with some historical context, the chapter explores the rapid growth of NFTs in the digital art and collectibles space, most notably during the speculative boom in 2021–2022 and the subsequent crash. The chapter then investigates how NFTs might expand beyond these initial use cases. It describes major developments in technology, business models, and financial infrastructure that will support further evolution of NFTs. Using real-world examples, the chapter then discusses emerging categories of NFT use cases, such as tokenization of physical assets, ticketing, and digital identity. It concludes by emphasizing that the true mass adoption of NFTs will occur when the technology becomes invisible and the primary draw becomes the value of use cases, not the novelty of NFTs themselves. While one should be skeptical about specific predictions for massive NFT adoption, this chapter shows that the capabilities NFTs provide are poised to add value in a wide variety of contexts.
Parallel Computing and Optimization Techniques
Music Technology and Sound Studies
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
For better or worse, non-fungible tokens (NFTs) are the most peculiar and least expected art market innovations of the early twenty-first century. This chapter provides a brief history of NFTs and the NFT market, beginning with the invention of blockchain technology, through the creation of the Bitcoin, Namecoin, and Ethereum blockchains, and the NFT phenomenon. It describes a selection of NFT projects and artists and provides a theoretical account of both the art market and the NFT market.
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
The Internet of Things (IoT) offers significant convenience but also exposes users to heightened risks from malicious attacks aiming to compromise device authentication and forge identities. Existing identity authentication systems typically rely on centralized architectures, leading to single points of failure and trust issues. This study introduces a mutual identity authentication scheme leveraging blockchain technology and the unique properties of physical unclonable functions (PUFs) embedded in IoT devices. PUFs are inherently unpredictable and unique, even among chips manufactured in the same batch, rendering it virtually impossible for attackers to replicate device authentication information and forge identities. By integrating blockchain technology with zero-knowledge proof protocols, the proposed scheme ensures secure authentication within open and transparent networks. Once the authentication process is completed, results are recorded on the blockchain to prevent tampering, and aggregate signature technology safeguards against man-in-the-middle attacks during data transmission from gateways to devices. Security analysis demonstrates that the proposed blockchain-PUF method is robust against common IoT security threats and is suitable for IoT devices with limited computational and storage capacities, offering a secure and efficient solution for modern IoT networks.
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
The world has seen enormous disruption by new age technologies in every domain of today's economy including the arena of art, music and entertainment. Furthermore, the impact of artificial intelligence and blockchain technology particularly the Non Fungible Tokens (NFTs) has overwhelmed scholars about their understanding of laws related to intellectual property. Advances in technology are expanding the scope of intellectual property beyond traditional patents, trademarks, designs, trade secrets, plant breeders' rights, and more. Various issues related to intellectual property have taken centre stage in the world of NFTs and Blockchains. Intellectual property disputes over virtual goods and NFTs are on the rise, and countries across the world are endeavoring to address the issues related to the protection of virtual goods. This article analyses the nature and scope of protection granted to virtual goods and NFTs in major jurisdictions viz the US and China. Further, the article analyses if the provisions of Indian IP Laws particularly the Trademarks and Designs Acts are sufficient to grant protection to the virtual goods.
Open access
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
We present VirtSecIO, a hypervisor-based platform for executing secure modules. VirtSecIO provides the modules with secure paths to peripheral devices, which can be shared between the modules and the operating system. Moreover, VirtSecIO is a thin hypervisor with a negligible performance overhead and a minimal attack surface. We demonstrate VirtSecIO’s abilities by developing HyperWallet, a secure module that acts as a hardware crypto-wallet, without requiring any dedicated hardware.
Open access
Security and Verification in Computing
Advanced Malware Detection Techniques
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
Anindita Sarkar, Souvik Ganguly, Partha Sarathi Sarkar, Swagata Roy Chatterjee
Now a days, blockchain based IOT networks are gaining popularity for the unlimited space and robust security mechanism. Blockchain is the best solution for the IoT devices to store the huge amount of data generated by them with utmost privacy and security using distributed ledger. However, the resource constrained IoT devices having low computing power are unable to meet the huge computing requirements of data mining in blockchain networks. This paper has proposed a robust Physically Unclonable Function (PUF)-based authentication system to replace the popular consensus algorithms by a lightweight hardware-based authentication mechanism without compromising the security and privacy. The proposed ring oscillator based PUF modules fortify users' credentials and withstand various types of attacks in decentralized and tamper-resistant blockchain based IOT network with significant reduction in latency and power consumption. Attack analysis is done to compare the vulnerabilities of both the proposed and conventional systems to prominent blockchain attacks. The results of attack analysis demonstrate that the proposed system outperforms the conventional PoW system.
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
Jun Kong Phiang, Vivian Yong Siew Yee, Hafizuddin Bin Hilmi, Dedree Leonna Lai · 6 authors
The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) has revolutionized industrial processes, offering automation and data-driven decision-making. However, this interconnectedness brings new security challenges, especially in crucial infrastructure sectors. Traditional security measures are inadequate, leading to the exploration of innovative solutions. Blockchain technology has emerged as a promising solution due to its decentralized and immutable nature. This paper proposes a Hybrid Blockchain-Based Authentication Mechanism for IIoT, combining Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS) and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC). The hybrid architecture utilizes public and private blockchains to ensure scalability, efficiency, and security. Lightweight consensus algorithms, DPoS, are incorporated to optimize performance, while ECC provides efficient cryptographic techniques suitable for IIoT environments. An interoperable framework facilitates seamless integration with existing infrastructure, ensuring regulatory compliance and compatibility. Decentralized identity management further enhances security and privacy. Results and analysis demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed solution, positioning hybrid blockchain architecture as the most suitable approach for enhancing security in IIoT environments.
Open access
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
Sagar Dev Achar, P Thejaswini, Sukumar Nandi, Sunit Kumar Nandi
The global paradigm shift toward edge computing has led to a growing demand for efficient integrity verification. Hash functions are one-way algorithms which act as a zero-knowledge proof of a datum’s contents. However, it is infeasible to compute hashes on devices with limited processing power and memory. Hence, we propose four novel LiteHash functions which are architecturally similar to SHA-512 yet simpler. By using various approximation techniques, our implementations reduce the computational costs of digesting a message into a hash. On validating our proposed designs using the NIST PRNG Test Suite, we observe SHA-512 equivalent cryptographic security while satisfying all desired hash function property requirements. We observe a minimum of 9.41% reduction in area, 20.47% reduction in power, and 22.05% increase in throughput. Our designs offer a throughput of up to 2 Gbps while reducing area and power by a maximum of 16.86% and 32.48%, respectively. LiteHash functions also support the computation of the entire SHA-2 family of hash functions (SHA-224/256/384/512) with minor architectural modifications.
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
R. Geetha, S Kalpana, R. Roopa Chandrika, M. Preetha · 6 authors
Using electronic signatures, blockchain technology, and identity-based encryption, essential documents may be certified and electronic contracts can be signed. All of the system’s nodes, operations, and transactions may benefit from blockchain technology’s distributed ledgers. This study introduces a novel encryption system, Decentralized Identity based Encryption Logic (DIEL), and assesses its efficacy by comparing it to the established Identity based Encryption (IBE) scheme. In order to guarantee the privacy and confidentiality of patients’ data in cloud health systems, the suggested technique offers first-rate security using bilinear pairings. Additionally, this strategy authenticates users through challenge-response procedures. Furthermore, the suggested method guarantees the accuracy and integrity of shared data via the use of blockchain technology. Using the standard model, we can confirm that the suggested protocol is valid and that it is secure. Because all nodes are contributing data, cyberspace is more open and behavior can be more easily tracked. Data certification and the contract signing procedure are both finished and in compliance. Users may protect themselves from fraud and identity theft with the help of the Identity based Management system’s encryption features. When used together, these two technologies will provide a safer method of data storage while yet preserving user privacy.
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
Although hardware trojans impose a relevant threat to the hardware security of RISC-V and Web3 applications, existing datasets have a limited set of examples, as the most famous hardware trojan dataset TrustHub has 106 different trojans. RISC-V specifically has study cases of three and four different hardware trojans, and no research was found regarding Web3 hardware trojans in modules such as a hardware wallet. This research presents a dataset of 290 Verilog examples generated with ChatGPT-4 Large Language Model (LLM) based on 29 golden models and the TrustHub taxonomy. It is expected that this dataset supports future research endeavors regarding defense mechanisms against hardware trojans in RISC-V, hardware wallet, and hardware Proof of Work (PoW) miner.
Open access
2 source records
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
This work focuses on utilising Physically Unclonable Functions (PUFs) for device authentication, exploiting a device's unique manufacturing-induced hardware variations. Traditional PUF-based authentication methods often rely on trusted third parties for validation or necessitate that Verifiers maintain large databases. Existing approaches that aim to reduce storage demands by reutilizing information typically address only networklevel threats, leading to doubts about the necessity of PUFs, or they focus exclusively on adversaries aiming at non-volatile memory. This paper introduces a classification guideline that delineates the scenarios in which PUFs are necessary or advantageous. Additionally, we present a novel PUF-based authentication scheme that incorporates challenge concealment to safeguard against comprehensive invasive physical attacks. This method offers perfect hiding, an enhanced level of security compared to previous models that permitted the reusing of PUF challenges. Through this approach, we aim to provide a more secure yet efficient framework for PUF-based authentication, addressing the limitations of current methodologies and extending the protection against a broader spectrum of adversaries.
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
This paper presents a framework for securing blockchain-based IoT systems by integrating Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs) within a Hyperledger Fabric environment. Our approach leverages PUFs for robust device authentication and ZKPs for privacy-preserving transaction processing, addressing key challenges of security, privacy, and scalability in IoT systems. The framework’s architecture utilizes Hyperledger Fabric’s modular design and private channels to enhance scalability. Off-chain experimental results demonstrate the framework’s feasibility, with compact proof sizes (median 805 bytes) and efficient processing times (average 2,800 ms end-to-end). A comprehensive security analysis shows the framework’s resilience against various attacks, including device impersonation and data tampering. This work provides a foundation for secure and scalable blockchain-based IoT systems, with directions for future on-chain implementation and optimization for resource-constrained devices.
Open access
3 source records
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
Marisol García‐Valls, Alejandro M. Chirivella-Ciruelos
Non-functional requirements related to safety, security, and timeliness have made cyber–physical systems (CPS) initially reluctant to their integration with blockchain technology. Despite the multiple advantages of blockchain like improved data security and traceability, the main reasons that have slowed down its adoption in CPS still remain. Examples of these are the inherent overhead of accessing the distributed ledger and the security incidents that a number of blockchain networks have suffered since its inception. This paper presents VelogCPS, a novel middleware that guarantees that logic and data managed by blockchain networks of cyber–physical systems is verified and generated by a legitimate source. Thus, VelogCPS avoids a kind of security incidents that impact the authenticity and integrity of the logic and data managed in blockchain networks. By authenticity we refer to provenance authenticity of the involved smart contracts, i.e., the perfect matching between the source-code and a corresponding advertised smart-contract logic. This middleware ensures that the entities that participate to a CPS use solely authentic logic. For this, our approach leverages block verification services and enforces them through the operation workflow. As a result, the middleware guarantees that the CPS participants use and share authentic logic. Our approach is validated by providing an implementation on a real blockchain network, employing actual smart contract verifier logic, and analysing the temporal behavior of the overall system operations; this ensures its utility for CPS and IoT.
Open access
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
Smart Grid Security and Resilience
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
BACKGROUND: A blockchain can be described as a distributed ledger database where, under a consensus mechanism, data are permanently stored in records, called blocks, linked together with cryptography. Each block contains a cryptographic hash function of the previous block, a timestamp, and transaction data, which are permanently stored in thousands of nodes and never altered. This provides a potential real-world application for generating a permanent, decentralized record of scientific data, taking advantage of blockchain features such as timestamping and immutability. IMPLEMENTATION: Here, we propose INNBC DApp, a Web3 decentralized application providing a simple front-end user interface connected with a smart contract for recording scientific data on a modern, proof-of-stake (POS) blockchain such as BNB Smart Chain. Unlike previously proposed blockchain tools that only store a hash of the data on-chain, here the data are stored fully on-chain within the transaction itself as "transaction input data", with a true decentralized storage solution. In addition to plain text, the DApp can record various types of files, such as documents, images, audio, and video, by using Base64 encoding. In this study, we describe how to use the DApp and perform real-world transactions storing different kinds of data from previously published research articles, describing the advantages and limitations of using such a technology, analyzing the cost in terms of transaction fees, and discussing possible use cases. RESULTS: We have been able to store several different types of data on the BNB Smart Chain: raw text, documents, images, audio, and video. Notably, we stored several complete research articles at a reasonable cost. We found a limit of 95KB for each single file upload. Considering that Base64 encoding increases file size by approximately 33%, this provides us with a theoretical limit of 126KB. We successfully overcome this limitation by splitting larger files into smaller chunks and uploading them as multi-volume archives. Additionally, we propose AES encryption to protect sensitive data. Accordingly, we show that it is possible to include enough data to be useful for storing and sharing scientific documents and images on the blockchain at a reasonable cost for the users. CONCLUSION: INNBC DApp represents a real use case for blockchain technology in decentralizing biomedical data storage and sharing, providing us with features such as immutability, timestamp, and identity that can be used to ensure permanent availability of the data and to provide proof-of-existence as well as to protect authorship, a freely available decentralized science (DeSci) tool aiming to help bring mass adoption of blockchain technology among the scientific community.
Open access
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
Cryptography and Data Security
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
Hardware-based solutions are becoming more and more popular as a result of the increased need for practical and safe authentication methods. However, one of the key challenges in these systems is the lack of a robust mechanism to revoke compromised credentials effectively. The Ethereum Attestation Service (EAS), which uses the blockchain-based Ethereum platform to create a decentralized, tamper-resistant infrastructure for credential attestation and revocation, is presented in this article as a novel solution to this critical issue. By combining the transparency and immutability of blockchain technology with smart contracts and cryptographic techniques, the EAS enables secure and auditable management of certificates. The conducted study investigates the limitations of existing revocation methods of password-less mechanisms and proposes the EAS as a viable alternative. In the design phase, the paper demonstrates the system's efficiency in handling attestation requests, verifying attestations, and securely managing revocations. EAS excels in providing reliable revocation, thereby reducing the risks associated with compromised hardware-based passwordless systems. Moreover, this research explores the benefits of EAS-based revocation within the IoT context, where Physically Unclonable Functions (PUFs) face similar challenges as HSMs. Experimental results, obtained in a testnet environment, reveal reduced authentication times, making this solution suitable for real-time scenarios as well.
Open access
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
Anne M. Luescher, Andreas L. Gimpel, Wendelin J. Stark, Reinhard Heckel · 5 authors
Abstract Physical unclonable functions (PUFs) based on unique tokens generated by random manufacturing processes have been proposed as an alternative to mathematical one-way algorithms. However, these tokens are not distributable, which is a disadvantage for decentralized applications. Finding unclonable, yet distributable functions would help bridge this gap and expand the applications of object-bound cryptography. Here we show that large random DNA pools with a segmented structure of alternating constant and randomly generated portions are able to calculate distinct outputs from millions of inputs in a specific and reproducible manner, in analogy to physical unclonable functions. Our experimental data with pools comprising up to >10 10 unique sequences and encompassing >750 comparisons of resulting outputs demonstrate that the proposed chemical unclonable function (CUF) system is robust, distributable, and scalable. Based on this proof of concept, CUF-based anti-counterfeiting systems, non-fungible objects and decentralized multi-user authentication are conceivable.
Open access
DNA and Biological Computing
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) are digital assets recorded on the blockchain, providing cryptographic proof of ownership over digital or physical items. Although Solana has only begun to gain popularity in recent years, its NFT market has seen substantial transaction volumes. In this paper, we conduct the first systematic research on the characteristics of Solana NFTs from two perspectives: longitudinal measurement and wash trading security audit. We gathered 132,736 Solana NFT from Solscan and analyzed the sales data within these collections. Investigating users' economic activity and NFT owner information reveals that the top users in Solana NFT are skewed toward a higher distribution of purchases. Subsequently, we employ the Local Outlier Factor algorithm to conduct a wash trading audit on 2,175 popular Solana NFTs. We discovered that 138 NFT pools are involved in wash trading, with 8 of these NFTs having a wash trading rate exceeding 50%. Fortunately, none of these NFTs have been entirely washed out.
Open access
3 source records
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
User Authentication and Security Systems
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
Robert Rencher, Dinesh Manoharan, R Prithiviraj, Ritesh Ghimire · 10 authors
<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The number of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) has been growing over the past few years and will continue to grow at a faster pace in the near future. UAS faces many challenges in certification, airspace management, operations, supply chain, and maintenance. Blockchain, defined as a distributed ledger technology for the enterprise that features immutability, traceability, automation, data privacy, and security, can help address some of these challenges. However, blockchain also has certain drawbacks and, additionally, it is still not fully mature. Hence it is essential to study how blockchain can help UAS. This Aerospace Information Report (AIR) presents the current opportunities, challenges of UAS operating at or below 400 ft Above Ground Level (AGL) altitude for commercial use and how blockchain can help meet these challenges. It also provides requirements for developing a blockchain solution for UAS along with the need for the standardization of blockchain enabled processes.</div></div>
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security