Blockchain Papers

Lalitha Anand

No abstract is available for this record.

Tanisha Joshi, G. Lakshmi Bhavani, Kottala Sri Yogi, Jitendra Kumar Chaudhary

No abstract is available for this record.

Xinzhong Liu, Jie Cui, Jing Zhang, Rongwang Yin · 8 authors

In vehicular networks, caching service content on edge servers (ESs) is a widely accepted strategy for promptly responding to vehicle requests, reducing communication overhead, and improving service experience. However, implementing such an architecture requires addressing the challenges associated with ES response data reliability and communication security. In this study, to tackle the ES response data reliability issue, a blockchain-assisted threshold signature scheme for cache-based vehicular networks is proposed. The scheme utilizes a threshold mechanism to sign the data broadcast by the ES, incorporates blockchain to trace malicious signers, and avoids the shortcomings and limitations associated with idealized assumptions for the ES in existing data-sharing schemes. Moreover, considering the communication security and high-speed mobility of vehicles, using the non-interactive signatures of knowledge based on the Σ-protocol, a secure and efficient message authentication scheme for vehicles and ESs is provided. Through rigorous security proofs and comprehensive analyses, our scheme satisfies the communication security requirements of vehicular networks. By leveraging the JPBC library for performance analysis, the proposed scheme demonstrates advantages as concerns both computation and communication overheads compared to related schemes. Moreover, we implemented the proposed scheme on an Ethereum test network (i.e., Goerli) to validate its feasibility.

Marwa Chaieb, Karam Bou‐Chaaya, Helmi Md Rais

No abstract is available for this record.

Alaa Alsaeed, Saleh Almowuena, Aasem N. Alyahya

The Internet of Vehicles (IoV) is an emerging area within intelligent transportation systems, enabling real-time communication among vehicles, infrastructure, and pedestrians. While this connectivity enhances traffic management and safety, it also introduces significant security challenges—particularly in authentication, authorization, and data integrity. To address these concerns, blockchain technology is explored to eliminate centralized points of failure and support secure, decentralized communication in IoV environments. A solution titled Blockchain-based Authentication and Authorization in IoV (BAAIoV) is proposed, utilizing smart contracts and a distributed ledger to manage vehicle identities and securely control access to network resources. A simulation environment was established using Simulation of Urban Mobility (SUMO) for traffic modeling and Hyperledger Fabric for blockchain implementation. Python-based middleware facilitated real-time interaction between the simulation and the blockchain system. The results indicate that the BAAIoV model significantly reduces authentication delays, enhances emergency vehicle recognition, and mitigates threats like spoofing and replay attacks. These improvements demonstrate the potential of blockchain to enhance the security, efficiency, and reliability of vehicular networks. This research contributes to the development of secure communication frameworks for IoV. It highlights the potential for future blockchain integration with edge computing, artificial intelligence, and post-quantum cryptography technologies. Such integrations are expected to further strengthen smart transportation infrastructures and advance the capabilities of next-generation intelligent mobility systems.

Reem Almaziad, Heba Kurdi

This study introduces a secure and scalable hybrid trust management system for Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs), designed to detect and mitigate diverse malicious activities, including Sybil attacks, Denial of Service (DoS), and data forgery. Integrating entropy-based anomaly detection, Bayesian reputation updating, and the IOTA Tangle as a distributed ledger, the system ensures robust, real-time trust evaluation in dynamic vehicular environments. Rigorous testing against adversarial scenarios demonstrated high detection accuracy, low latency, and resilience under varied attack conditions. Key contributions include enhanced scalability through edge computing, secure reputation storage using Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT), and real-time anomaly detection.

Shangping Wang, Qi Huang, Ruoxin Yan, Juanjuan Ma · 5 authors

No abstract is available for this record.

Dan Bogdanov, Eduardo Brito, Annika Jaakson, Peeter Laud · 5 authors

Abstract This paper introduces a new set of privacy-preserving mechanisms for verifying compliance with location-based policies for vehicle taxation, or for (electric) vehicle (EV) subsidies, using Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs). We present the design and evaluation of a Zero-Knowledge Proof-of-Location (ZK-PoL) system that ensures a vehicle’s adherence to territorial driving requirements without disclosing specific location data, hence maintaining user privacy. Our findings suggest a promising approach to apply ZK-PoL protocols in large-scale governmental subsidy or taxation programs.

Shayesta Naziri, Xu Wang, Guangsheng Yu, Christy Liang · 6 authors

The increasing deployment of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) for military, commercial, and logistics applications has raised significant concerns regarding flight path privacy. Conventional UAV communication systems often expose flight path data to third parties, making them vulnerable to tracking, surveillance, and location inference attacks. Existing encryption techniques provide security but fail to ensure complete privacy, as adversaries can still infer movement patterns through metadata analysis. To address these challenges, we propose a zk-SNARK (Zero-Knowledge Succinct Non-Interactive Argument of Knowledge)-based privacy preserving flight path authentication and verification framework. Our approach ensures that a UAV can prove its authorisation, validate its flight path with a control centre, and comply with regulatory constraints without revealing any sensitive trajectory information. By leveraging zk-SNARKs, the UAV can generate cryptographic proofs that verify compliance with predefined flight policies while keeping the exact path and location undisclosed. This method mitigates risks associated with real-time tracking, identity exposure, and unauthorised interception, thereby enhancing UAV operational security in adversarial environments. Our proposed solution balances privacy, security, and computational efficiency, making it suitable for resource-constrained UAVs in both civilian and military applications.

Huda A. Ahmed, Hend Muslim Jasim, Ali Noori Gatea, Ali Amjed Ali Al-Asadi · 5 authors

Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks (VANETs) are growing into more desirable targets for malicious individuals due to the quick rise in the number of automated vehicles around the roadside. Secure data transfer is necessary for VANETs to preserve the integrity of the entire network. Federated learning (FL) is often suggested as a safe technique for exchanging data among VANETs, however, its capacity to protect private information is constrained. This research proposes an extra level of security to Federated Q-learning by merging Blockchain technology with VANETs. Initially, traffic data is encrypted utilizing the Extended Elliptic Curve Cryptography (EX-ECC) technique to enhance the security of data. Then, the Federated Q-learning model trains the data and ensures higher privacy protection. Moreover, interplanetary file system (IPFS) technology allows Blockchain storage to improve the security of VANETs information. Additionally, the validation process of the proposed Blockchain framework is performed by utilizing a Delegated Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (DPBFT) based consensus algorithm. The proposed approach to federated Q-learning offered by Blockchain technology has the potential to develop VANET safety and performance. Comprehensive simulation tests are performed with several assessment criteria considered for number of vehicles 100, Throughput (102465.8 KB/s), Communication overhead (360.57 Mb), Average Latency (864.425 ms), Communication Time (19.51 s), Encryption time (0.98 ms), Decryption time (1.97 ms), Consensus delay (50 ms) and Validation delay (1.68 ms), respectively. As a result, the proposed approach performs significantly better than the existing approaches.

Jiaming Lai, Xiaohong Zhang, Shilin Liu, Shaojiang Zhong · 5 authors

Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANET) is considered one of the feasible solutions to improve the efficiency and safety of modern transportation systems, and it provides new opportunities for creating a safe and efficient traffic environment. In recent years, this technology has attracted extensive attention from the academic community. However, VANET is an open network with frequent information interaction, and users are vulnerable to security and privacy threats. The existing schemes mainly consider the identity authentication of vehicles in vehicle enterprises (VEs). Due to concerns about the leakage of core data, VEs lack the motivation to establish a cross-vehicle enterprise identity authentication framework. Based on the above analysis, we propose a cross-vehicle enterprise authentication architecture by designing a two-stage certificate generation mechanism where certificate authority (CA) and VEs cooperate to generate identity credentials for vehicles. To address the concerns of VEs, we establish distributed trust and enable information sharing across VEs by introducing a consortium blockchain composed of car companies, CA, and pseudonym certificate authority (PCA). Considering the need for vehicles to access road traffic information, we use a public blockchain to store public information, and the practical byzantine fault tolerant (PBFT) algorithm is used to reach consensus. Instead of using computationally complex bilinear pairing and mapping-to-point hashing operations, the proposed scheme uses an elliptic curve cryptosystem (ECC), considering the limited hardware resources of the vehicle and RSU. In addition, our scheme integrates edge computing to solve complex computing tasks that cannot be performed locally and further reduces system latency. Security analysis and performance analysis show that our scheme has better performance than existing schemes in terms of security, computational overhead, and communication overhead.

Junpei Tokunaga, Hiroyuki Ebara

Mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a self-organized system comprised of mobile wireless nodes, and MANET allows one to instantly build a network between terminals and the entire of area by multi-hop connection. MANET is expected to provide a means of communication in crowded event venues and post-disaster environments. It also supports applications that require network communication because it does not require a contract with a telecommunications carrier. However, the MANET relay node is in the state of a volunteer providing a communication environment to maintain the network, and there is no reward for continuing to forward other people’s data without sending. In some cases, a function to monitor transfer results can be provided. In this case, since MANET is distributed environments, a centralized monitoring function is not always reliable. In this article, we propose a protocol that can manage the transfer record even in a network composed of unreliable nodes by using a blockchain that can realize a distributed ledger even between unreliable nodes. Since the protocol uses smart contracts such as Ethereum, a data structure in which messages are concatenated with hashes is adopted to reduce the gas equivalent to the execution fee.

Nikhil Kumar Goyal, Seema Kaloria, Ashwarya Vijai, Deshraj Bairwa · 5 authors

Originally developed to power cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin and Ethereum, Distributed Ledger Technology or DLT is rapidly expanding its influence across all kinds of industries. Its attributes-decentralization, transparency, security, and immutability-are being applied in finance, healthcare, supply chain management, governance, among other sectors, offering solutions that streamline the conduct of operations, cost cuts, and increase trust.

Akarsh Singh, Shounak Sural, Tirthankar Sengupta, Shamik Sural

Autonomous vehicles (AVs) are gaining in popularity over the years as a viable cab service apps as well as for personal use. However, incidents of crashes involving AVs continue to occur, adversely affecting their prospects for widespread acceptance by both end users and regulatory authorities. While such cases are routinely investigated, in the absence of a human to testify on what caused the crash, one has to rely solely on available data. It is therefore imperative that the data logged by AVs is accessible to the concerned parties in a trustworthy manner. In this paper, we present AVChain—a novel framework for using a permissioned blockchain like HyperLedger Fabric (HLF) to record and share AV data comprised of sensors, actuators, maps, planning algorithms and machine learning models so that the data stays immutable even in the face of cross blaming among involved parties. Since the data volume is extremely large, we appropriately compress and down sample the same before storing in a distributed file system, namely, IPFS (Inter-Planetary File System). The hashes of such IPFS data called Content Ids (CIDs) are committed to the HLF network for making them tamper proof. The HLF ledger can later be queried to obtain the CIDs, which are then further used to retrieve and un-compress the original data from IPFS. Effectiveness and usability of AVChain is demonstrated by generating AV data from CARLA, which is a widely used open source AV simulator. For sharing AV data across organizations like sensor and actuator suppliers, map service providers, machine learning model developers and law enforcement authorities, the Weaver tool has been used to make multiple HLF networks interoperate. We have also developed a web application to demonstrate the working of AVChain. Results of an extensive set of experiments establish the efficacy of our approach.

Narayan Khatri, Sihyung Lee, Seung Yeob Nam

In this paper, we propose a Proof-of-Location (PoL)-based location verification scheme for mitigating Sybil attacks in vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs). For this purpose, we employ smart contracts for storing the location information of the vehicles. This smart contract is maintained by Road Side Units (RSUs) and acts as a ground truth for verifying the position information of the neighboring vehicles. To avoid the storage of fake location information inside the smart contract, vehicles need to solve unique computational puzzles generated by the neighboring RSUs in a limited time frame whenever they need to report their location information. Assuming a vehicle has a single Central Processing Unit (CPU) and parallel processing is not allowed, it can solve a single computational puzzle in a given time period. With this approach, the vehicles with multiple fake identities are prevented from solving multiple puzzles at a time. In this way, we can mitigate a Sybil attack and avoid the storage of fake location information in a smart contract table. Furthermore, the RSUs maintain a dedicated blockchain for storing the location information of neighboring vehicles. They take part in mining for the purpose of storing the smart contract table in the blockchain. This scheme guarantees the privacy of the vehicles, which is achieved with the help of a PoL privacy preservation mechanism. The verifier can verify the locations of the vehicles without revealing their privacy. Experimental results show that the proposed mechanism is effective in mitigating Sybil attacks in VANET. According to the experiment results, our proposed scheme provides a lower fake location registration probability, i.e., lower than 10%, compared to other existing approaches.

Xia Feng, Yaru Wang, Kaiping Cui, Liangmin Wang

The advancement of 6G wireless communication technology has facilitated the integration of Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks (VANETs). However, the messages transmitted over the public channel in the open and dynamic VANETs are vulnerable to malicious attacks. Although numerous researchers have proposed authentication schemes to enhance the security of Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) communication, most existing methodologies face two significant challenges: (1) the majority of the schemes are not lightweight enough to support real-time message interaction among vehicles; (2) the sensitive information like identity and position is at risk of being compromised. To tackle these issues, we propose a lightweight dual authentication protocol for V2V communication based on Physical Unclonable Function (PUF). The proposed scheme accomplishes dual authentication between vehicles by the combination of Zero-Knowledge Proof (ZKP) and MASK function. The security analysis proves that our scheme provides both anonymous authentication and information unlinkability. Additionally, the performance analysis demonstrates that the computation overhead of our scheme is approximately reduced 23.4% compared to the state-of-the-art schemes. The practical simulation conducted in a 6G network environment demonstrates the feasibility of 6G-based VANETs and their potential for future advancements.

R. Priscilla, J Gold Beulah Patturose, Jerrish Bright J M, M Sanjay · 6 authors

This project focuses on the development of a decentralized voting platform using blockchain technology, integrated with ERC-4337 standards and Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) to improve election integrity, transparency, and security. Traditional voting systems face vulnerabilities such as fraud, manipulation, and data breaches, which undermine public trust. By utilizing blockchain’s immutable ledger, this platform ensures that votes are securely recorded and verifiable, preventing any tampering after submission. ERC-4337 introduces account abstraction, which simplifies user interaction by offering flexible account management. This enhances the voting experience, making it more accessible for non-technical users, thereby increasing voter participation. NFTs are leveraged to represent candidates uniquely, providing a secure, transparent method to verify their identities and ensure authenticity throughout the election process. The combination of blockchain's decentralized structure, ERC-4337's user-friendly account management, and NFTs for candidate representation addresses major shortcomings of existing voting systems. This decentralized approach eliminates the need for intermediaries, reduces the risk of fraud, and enhances transparency with real-time verifiable results. The proposed platform can be adapted for various types of elections, ranging from local to national, offering a scalable, secure, and efficient alternative to conventional voting methods, ultimately modernizing and safeguarding the democratic process.

Stefan A. Iordache, Catalina Camelia Patilea, Ciprian Păduraru

In recent years, the rapid development of autonomous vehicles (AVs) has brought new challenges in terms of data security, privacy, and communication integrity. Our research investigates the potential of blockchain technology to improve the security of AVs by securing vehicle communication systems. By integrating blockchain with AI-based predictive algorithms, this approach aims to secure vehicle peer-to-peer communication, reduce traffic congestion, and improve safety for drivers and pedestrians. Blockchain’s decentralized ledger ensures the integrity of data exchange between vehicles and smart city infrastructure and mitigates the risks of cyberattacks such as data manipulation and identity forgery. This paper also examines recent advances in vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) and vehicular social networks (VSNs), and it demonstrates how the immutability and cryptographic security of the blockchain can strengthen AV systems. The proposed architecture not only protects user privacy but also decentralizes access to critical data needed for AI-driven decisions, ultimately promoting a safer and more reliable environment for autonomous vehicles.

Peng Liu, Qian He, Yi‐Ting Chen, Shan Jiang · 6 authors

Intelligent Transport Systems are designed to revolutionize the performance and efficiency of Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs). Consumer electronics encompassing autonomous driving and route planning contribute to a better driving experience. Federated learning enables vehicle collaboration to train global models of intelligent transport without sharing local data for personalized consumer electronics. However, due to the dynamic network topology and unreliable open channels of VANETs, various potential risks undermine the credibility of establishing intermediate model parameters. To address these issues, we propose a lightweight authentication and privacy-preserving aggregation scheme for blockchain-enabled federated learning in VANETs(LPBFL). Specifically, we first construct a distributed secure authentication framework for blockchain federated learning that facilitates seamless authentication of mobile vehicles and security of model transmission. Subsequently, we design a lightweight three-party authentication key agreement based on chaotic map that establishes a session key for secure transmission of the intermediate model. In addition, we propose a continuous authentication adaptive model aggregation algorithms to ensure local model integrity while improving the quality of global models. Finally, security analysis and proofs show that LPBFL enhances the privacy and reliability of intermediate model parameters. Comprehensive experimental evaluations substantiate that the proposed LPBFL facilitates lightweight authentication while maintaining superior model accuracy.

Qichao Xu, Jie Jin, Zhou Su, Ruidong Li · 7 authors

Recently, edge content delivery has been promoted for video applications in unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-assisted vehicular networks (UVNs). UAVs could proactively cache (video) contents and transmit them to nearby vehicular users, thereby significantly mitigating delivery latency. However, since UAVs are typically deployed by untrusted third parties, the contents may be illicitly accessed by some curious and even malicious UAVs, compromising users' privacy. Besides, due to the limited resources, UAVs may be unwilling to deliver contents without adequate compensations. To address these issues, in this paper, we propose a novel secure edge content delivery scheme in UVNs. Specifically, we first devise a blockchain-based layered secure edge content delivery framework. With the scalable video coding (SVC) that encodes each content into a base layer and multiple enhancement layers, only the enhancement layers of the content are delivered by UAVs, ensuring that untrusted UAVs without the base layer cannot recover the content to access explicit information. Meanwhile, a lightweight consortium blockchain is utilized to supervise the enhancement layer delivery services of UAVs in a distributed fashion. The delegated proof of stake (DPoS)-based practical Byzantine fault tolerance (PBFT) consensus algorithm is designed to immutably and traceably record content delivery transactions between UAVs and vehicular users. Then, we formulate the content delivery incentive problem as a Stackelberg game, where UAVs act as game leaders to determine content delivery prices and vehicular users act as game followers to determine the number of required enhancement layers. Afterwards, through game analysis using the backward induction approach, the Stackelberg equilibrium is attained as the solution to the formulated problem, where the optimal strategies of both UAVs and vehicular users are derived by the Q-learning algorithm. Finally, extensive simulations are conducted to demonstrate that the proposed scheme can significantly enhance the security of delivered contents and efficiently motivate UAVs to cooperatively deliver contents.

Javad Shahparian, Seyed Hossein Erfani, Azadeh Zamanifar

No abstract is available for this record.

Krishna Kishor Tirupati, Imran Khan, Lalit Kumar, Srinivasulu Harshavardhan Kendyala · 6 authors

In this paper, we use blockchain technology to manage communication and trust between cars and the Internet of Vehicles (IoV). Data transmission between vehicles can be made secure, transparent, and tamper-proof thanks to blockchain's decentralized nature. A smart contract also enhances trust and accountability by incorporating consensus mechanisms such as proof of work and proof of stake. A two-part system is proposed, consisting of a vehicle registration module and a message alert module. In order to integrate new vehicles into the network, smart contracts have been developed, which are linked to the wallets of the users. Blockchain-based smart contracts facilitate secure vehicle registration. In the second module, message alert generation, an administrator can generate messages and send them to all registered vehicles via a web-based platform, with Ethereum gas costs covering the transaction fees. Blockchain technology is used to exchange data securely and reliably for self-driving cars. The consensus mechanism verifies data integrity through both proof of stake and proof of work, ensuring trustworthiness and transparency.

ES Phalguna Krishna, Daria Sandeep, Raviteja Kocherla, Kranthi Kumar Lella · 7 authors

No abstract is available for this record.

Fengjun Shang, Xinxin Deng

No abstract is available for this record.