Blockchain Papers

Khizar Hameed, Faiqa Maqsood, Zhenfei Wang

No abstract is available for this record.

Özhan Sağlık, Victoria L. Lemieux

The purpose of this study is to examine the viewpoint of national archives on blockchain and distributed ledger technologies, discover their activities in relation to the application of these technologies, and analyse their thoughts on how these technologies can play a role in the preservation of records’ trustworthiness. A survey method was adopted in the study. The survey consisted of 18 questions about national archives’ attitude and actions in relation to application of blockchain and distributed ledger technologies. The survey was sent to the 194 national archives listed in the Directory of National Archives. Eighteen responses have been acquired which, while low, provides initial insights into how national archives are responding to these technologies. This study has three hypotheses. The first one is “blockchain technology will change archiving practices “, the second one is “the trustworthiness of digital records can be preserved better with blockchain technology”, and the last one is “national archives are reluctant to implement blockchain networks that use tradable crypto-assets”. According to the results obtained from the survey, the first hypothesis has not been verified. The second hypothesis is likely, as national archives that are keen to adopt blockchain and distributed ledger technologies, but a majority of the archives are hesitant to adopt these technologies for archiving, suggesting that the third and final hypothesis might also true, though the reasons for national archives’ reluctance to adopt these technologies could be more varied than originally hypothesized. This study is one of the first systemic analyses of the viewpoint and activities of national archives on blockchain and distributed technologies.

Nan Xiao, Zhaoshun Wang, Xiaoxue Sun, Junfeng Miao

To address challenges in digital evidence collection and responsibility determination for industrial safety accidents involving industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) device nodes, this paper proposes a blockchain-based digital forensic scheme within the IIoT communication architecture. The scheme utilizes a decentralized blockchain storage mechanism to enable remote storage of digital forensic data. Additionally, it leverages smart contract mechanisms to facilitate efficient retrieval and tracing of related evidence chains. To enhance data security of IIoT device nodes, a token mechanism is implemented for access control. Moreover, to meet real-time evidence acquisition requirements in IIoT, an efficient batch consensus mechanism is proposed. Experimental simulations demonstrate the superiority of the novel consensus algorithm compared to the traditional Delegated Proof-of-Stake (DPOS) consensus in the proposed scheme for the IIoT environment. It meets speed requirements for evidence collection, ensuring tamper-proof, non-repudiable, and permanent storage of digital forensic data. Consequently, the application of blockchain technology for judicial access and evidence storage has made significant contributions to digital forensics within the IIoT context.

Kai Ma, Jintao Huang, Ningyu He, Zhuo Wang · 5 authors

Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) drive the prosperity of the Web3 ecosystem. By November 2023, the total market value of NFT projects reached approximately 16 billion USD. Accompanying the success of NFTs are various security issues, i.e., attacks and scams are prevalent in the ecosystem. While NFTs have attracted significant attentions from both industry and academia, there is a lack of understanding of kinds of NFT security issues. The discovery, in-depth analysis, and systematic categorization of these security issues are of significant importance for the prosperous development of the NFT ecosystem. To fill the gap, we performed a systematic literature review related to NFT security, and we have identified 142 incidents from 213 security reports and 18 academic papers until October 1st, 2023. Through manual analysis of the compiled security incidents, we have classified them into 12 major categories. Then we explored potential solutions and mitigation strategies. Drawing from these analyses, we established the first NFT security reference frame. Except, we extracted the characteristics of NFT security issues, i.e., the prevalence, severity, and intractability. We have indicated the gap between industry and academy for NFT security, and provide further research directions for the community. This paper, as the first SoK of NFT security, has systematically explored the security issues within the NFT ecosystem, shedding light on their root causes, real-world attacks, and potential ways to address them. Our findings will contribute to the future research of NFT security.

Michael Fröwis, Rainer Böhme

No abstract is available for this record.

Kang Jieying, Lihua Zhao, Yang Qi, Lei Mingyang · 6 authors

With the popularization of computer and network technology, data with proof and legal effect has gradually changed from physical to electronic, and electronic documents have gradually become an important carrier and tool for transmitting information and recording facts. Electronic evidence has the characteristics of easy storage and high security, which also imposes high requirements on network security and other aspects. How to effectively preserve electronic evidence and fully trace its source when necessary has become an important research issue. This paper proposes a method to achieve efficient preservation and traceability of electronic evidence through the combination of blockchain, Image-Caption and word segmentation technology. When using blockchain technology to ensure the non-tampering and anti-repudiation of electronic evidence, ensure that electronic evidence While improving the authenticity and integrity of electronic evidence, it improves the traceability and accuracy of electronic evidence.

Chengfeng Zhang, Wei Shen, Yepeng Liu, Fan Zhang · 8 authors

No abstract is available for this record.

Arlen Brickman, Yiğit Baykara, Miguel Carabaño, Sean Hacking

Background: Distributed ledger technology (DLT) enables the creation of tamper-resistant, decentralized, and secure digital ledgers. A non-fungible token (NFT) represents a record on-chain associated with a digital or physical asset, such as a whole-slide image (WSI). The InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) represents an off-chain network, hypermedia, and file sharing peer-to-peer protocol for storing and sharing data in a distributed file system. Today, we need cheaper, more efficient, highly scalable, and transparent solutions for WSI data storage and access of medical records and medical imaging data. Methods: WSIs were created from non-human tissues and H&E-stained sections were scanned on a Philips Ultrafast WSI scanner at 40× magnification objective lens (1 μm/pixel). TIFF images were stored on IPFS, while NFTs were minted on the Ethereum blockchain network in ERC-1155 standard. WSI-NFTs were stored on MetaMask and OpenSea was used to display the WSI-NFT collection. Filebase storage application programing interface (API) were used to create dedicated gateways and content delivery networks (CDN). Results: A total of 10 WSI-NFTs were minted on the Ethereum blockchain network, found on our collection "Whole Slide Images as Non-fungible Tokens Project" on Open Sea: https://opensea.io/collection/untitled-collection-126765644. WSI TIFF files ranged in size from 1.6 to 2.2 GB and were stored on IPFS and pinned on 3 separate nodes. Under optimal conditions, and using a dedicated CDN, WSI reached retrieved at speeds of over 10 mb/s, however, download speeds and WSI retrieval times varied significantly depending on the file and gateway used. Overall, the public IPFS gateway resulted in variably poorer WSI download retrieval performance compared to gateways provided by Filebase storage API. Conclusion: Whole-slide images, as the most complex and substantial data files in healthcare, demand innovative solutions. In this technical report, we identify pitfalls in IPFS, and demonstrate proof-of-concept using a 3-layer architecture for scalable, decentralized storage, and access. Optimized through dedicated gateways and CDNs, which can be effectively applied to all medical data and imaging modalities across the healthcare sector. DLT and off-chain network solutions present numerous opportunities for advancements in clinical care, education, and research. Such approaches uphold the principles of equitable healthcare data ownership, security, and democratization, and are poised to drive significant innovation.

Borase Bhushan Gulabrao, Digvijaysinh Rathod, Aishwarya Tiwari

No abstract is available for this record.

Tanuja Kayarga, C Kavitha, P. Lokamathe, M. Yamuna · 5 authors

Electronic First Information Report (e-FIR) is a basic document filed to the police stations by a victim or someone on his/her behalf when a cognizable offense such as murder, kidnapping, rape, theft, etc. is committed. In the e-FIR database, the offense&s;s record can be compromised due to its centralized nature, and further the intentional registration of false e-FIR can occur. Thus, data integrity and transparency are key concerns in e-FIR database. In this paper, e-FIR data integrity and false registration appended with police stations in a centralized database are addressed via a consensus-based distributed blockchain solution, as an integral part of a smart city environment. Specifically, a smart contract based intelligent framework has been utilized to explore the potential of Ethereum blockchain in providing integrity to e-FIR data stored in a police station&s;s database. Local database is interfaced with Ethereum blockchain using Web3 Remote Procedure Call (RPC) protocol. Multiple simulations have been performed to evaluate the performance of the proposed framework. Our results show a trade-off between different hashing algorithm security level for the offenses data and number of transactions stored in a single block on blockchain ledger.

Sakshi, Arun Malik, Ajay K. Sharma

No abstract is available for this record.

Sotirios Brotsis, Konstantinos-Panagiotis Grammatikakis, Dimitrios Kavallieros, Antonio I. Mazilu · 7 authors

No abstract is available for this record.

Walaa Alomari, Khair Eddin Sabri, Nadim Obeid

Recently, smart contracts were introduced as a necessity to automatically execute specific operations within blockchain systems. The popularity and diversity of blockchain systems attracted intensive attentions from academia, industry and other sectors. Blockchain systems were implemented using different programming languages that used in defining the triggering events and their consequent actions within the smart contract. In this article, we propose a digital evidences preservation framework that supports logic-based smart contracts to manage entries associated with digital evidences. Combining logic-based approach and blockchain systems may result in ensuing contracts that have technical advantages over procedural coding. The paper shows the motivation for choosing logic-based approach to define a smart contract. We introduce the rules and structure of the proposed logic-based contract.

Blerim Krasniqi, Eliza Stefanova

The World is experiencing a significant shift in how technology is being used and how new strategies are being developed to streamline and get around bureaucratic processes. Cannot continue without mentioning blockchain as a revolutionary decentralization concept that also serves as a foundational notion for Web 3. One must admit that this is a struggle we are going through and that will continue into this new period as we add more approaches and technologies. In this study, the Web3 principles (like decentralization, trust and security, privacy and data protection), methodologies, and technologies are evaluated, along with their connections to digital forensics. Various viewpoints emphasizing the difficulties and current condition of these issues are offered. Authors discuss their viewpoints while highlighting their extensive background in digital forensics, keeping in mind that digital forensics is a relatively new profession. Based on their viewpoint's conclusions are being set. This work is currently being done by the authors as part of their research in the field of digital forensics and Web3.

Deebakkarthi Chinnasame Rani, Sai Ganesh Janakiraman, K. S. Chandra, Elambharathi Padmavathi Thangavel · 7 authors

Presented herein is a novel algorithm for multi-round, zero-knowledge proof (ZKP), devised specifically for authenticating factorisation proofs within a variety of cryptographic applications. This advanced algorithm, while maintaining computational complexity within acceptable bounds, offers a secure and proficient solution. The functionality of the algorithm is marked by multiple rounds of interaction between the Prover and Verifier. Initially, the Prover generates a random value and calculates a commitment. Subsequently, the Verifier issues a random challenge, eliciting a computed response from the Prover. To validate the proof, the Verifier verifies the equality of the commitment and the computed response. Efficaciousness of the proposed multi-round ZKP algorithm is demonstrated across diverse input sizes and parameters. Results indicate a success rate exceeding 90% on average, showcasing the robustness of the method. The recurring interaction between the Verifier and Prover enhances the Prover's authentication, thereby improving the algorithm’s reliability. Implementation of the algorithm, achievable through standard cryptographic tools and protocols, can fortify the security of multiple cryptographic applications. A significant application can be found in Digital Identity Management Systems (DIMS). Currently, these systems are vulnerable to a myriad of threats, including identity spoofing, data breaches, and internal security risks. The application of the ZKP algorithm can simultaneously augment security and withhold sensitive information, potentially transforming the DIMS security landscape. Future research may focus on improving the efficiency and scalability of the multi-round ZKP algorithm. There also remains a vast potential for exploring additional applications of this technique within various cryptographic domains.

Syed Atir Raza, Mehwish Shaikh, Khadija Tahira

Digital forensics, a crucial subset of cybersecurity, encompasses sophisticated tools and methodologies for the interpretation, analysis, and investigation of digital evidence, facilitating the identification and mitigation of cybercrimes and security breaches. With the advent of cryptocurrencies, an array of unique challenges has emerged in the domain of digital forensic investigations. This review elucidates the prevailing state of digital forensic practices vis-à-vis cryptocurrencies, emphasizing the obstacles and limitations inherent in probing decentralized and intricate technologies. Notable deficiencies in extant investigative practices were observed. Solutions proffered encompass the formulation of novel software applications tailored for cryptocurrency analyses, the integration of machine learning and artificial intelligence capabilities, and the employment of advanced analytics to discern patterns and irregularities within blockchain transactions. Furthermore, a pioneering methodology, merging traditional digital forensic strategies with blockchain-specific techniques, is posited for efficacious cryptocurrency inquiries. The analysis underscores the imperative for a renewed paradigm in digital forensic examinations to surmount the challenges integral to cryptocurrency probes. By forging novel methodologies and standardizing investigative procedures, support for legal enforcement endeavors can be enhanced, facilitating the efficacious detection and prosecution of cryptocurrency-associated misdemeanors.

Eleonora Rosati

Eleonora Rosati is a Professor of Intellectual Property Law at Stockholm University (Sweden) and Of Counsel at Bird & Bird in Milan (Italy). The present contribution is a re-publication of a study prepared at the request of the World Intellectual Property Organization and published under the same title on 1 September 2023. Over time, technological advancements have resulted in novel ways both to exploit content and to infringe rights—including intellectual property rights (IPRs)—vesting in them. Legislative instruments have consistently clarified that pre-existing rights continue to apply to new media, ie, means to disseminate intangible assets, including in digital and online contexts. In terms of rights enforcement, however, the progressive dematerialization of content and dissemination modalities has given rise to challenges, including when it comes to determining where an alleged IPR infringement has been committed. This study seeks to answer the following questions: (1) Can the same criteria and notions developed in relation to other dissemination media find application in the context of IPR infringements carried out through and within the metaverse? (2) Does the distinction between centralized and decentralized metaverses have substantial implications for the localization of IPR infringements? The first question is answered in the affirmative. In relation to the second question, it is submitted that the distinction between centralized and decentralized metaverses—while of substantial relevance to the determination of enforcement options—may not have significant implications insofar as the localization of IPR infringements is concerned. Over time, technological advancements have resulted in novel ways both to exploit content and to infringe rights—including intellectual property rights (IPRs)—vesting in them. Legislative instruments have consistently clarified that pre-existing rights continue to apply to new media, ie, means to disseminate intangible assets, including in digital and online contexts. In terms of rights enforcement, however, the progressive dematerialization of content and dissemination modalities has given rise to challenges, including when it comes to determining where an alleged IPR infringement has been committed. The importance of such an exercise cannot be overstated: it is inter alia key to determining (i) whether the right at issue (eg, a registered IPR) is enforceable at the outset, (ii) which law applies to the dispute at hand as well as—in accordance with certain jurisdictional criteria—(iii) which courts are competent to adjudicate it. For example, determining that the relevant infringement has been committed in country A serves in turn to determine (i) if the right at issue is enforceable at all, given that IPRs are territorial in nature. 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Syam Machinathu Parambil Gangadharan, Chandrakala Arya, Srinivas Aluvala, Jagendra Singh · 6 authors

Smart contracts have the potential to revolutionize many sectors by automating difficult procedures and removing the need for middlemen. Smart contracts are self-executing contracts in which the contents of the agreement between the buyer and seller are directly encoded into lines of code. Nevertheless, because smart contracts are immutable, vulnerabilities cannot be easily rectified after they are implemented. For this reason, it is essential to identify and eliminate vulnerabilities before implementation. The Ethereum Blockchain is the primary home of such Contracts which are written in the full-fledged programming language-Solidity. The process of finding these vulnerabilities before deployment is known as Smart Contract Auditing. We propose this new scalable framework of Smart Contract Auditing which promises accuracy and dependability using Deep Learning approaches that can be leveraged for large scale auditing.

Sai Pranav Krishna, Pushpa Singh

The implementation of distributed ledger technologies and Blockchains has recently become high in various domains, from finance to governance. There are multiple Blockchain frameworks and networks for different use cases but still seems to be a gap in how different frameworks, protocols, and ledgers interact with each other. With the increase in the adoption of Blockchains, there is an increasing need for suitable interoperable solutions so that more value can be provided to the end user. This research focuses on analyzing how current Blockchain bridges are built and evaluating common security risks and countermeasures within the scope of interoperability. A threat model is proposed to analyze blockchain interoperability's various components, vulnerabilities, risks, and corresponding mitigation techniques. Common security vulnerabilities like centralization of trust and vulnerable smart contracts and others were identified and classified based on the kind of bridge component along with possible mitigations. Each solution, like Relays, HTLCs, Notary Schemes, and Smart Contracts, is explored. Thus, the study will help developers understand the risks involved by providing insights and pointing out the need for standardization on Blockchain interoperable solutions.

Sakshi, Arun Malik, Ajay K. Sharma

No abstract is available for this record.

Mousa Mohammed Khubrani

Digital forensics is crucial in investigating cybercrimes, focusing on collecting, analyzing, and preserving digital evidence. With technology deeply integrated into our lives, digital forensics plays a vital role in uncovering evidence related to criminal activities, cybersecurity incidents, and fraud. However, mobile devices pose unique challenges due to their diverse nature and complex data storage structures. In this context, blockchain technology emerges as a promising solution. Blockchain, a decentralized and immutable digital ledger, provides a secure framework for storing and verifying digital transactions. Its features, such as tamper resistance and cryptographic security, align well with the needs of mobile device forensics. By leveraging Blockchain, digital evidence's integrity and authenticity can be enhanced by securely recording the chain of custody. Additionally, Blockchain addresses data privacy and security concerns by offering secure data storage and access controls. Furthermore, Blockchain enables secure collaboration among investigators through its distributed nature, allowing for shared and auditable repositories of forensic data. This paper explores the intersection of mobile device forensics and blockchain technology, highlighting the challenges faced and the potential benefits of utilizing Blockchain. It proposes a blockchain-based mobile cloud forensic framework to reliably record forensic findings and resolve issues in mobile cloud forensics. Integrating blockchain technology in mobile device forensics offers improved trustworthiness and reliability of digital evidence, overcomes privacy and security concerns, and enables efficient collaboration among forensic teams. This research aims to inspire further advancements in mobile device forensics, enhancing the capabilities of digital investigators and contributing to more effective cybercrime investigations. Finally, we proposed a blockchain-based mobile cloud forensic framework to reliably record the forensic findings and resolve the issues with mobile cloud forensics.

Asma Jodeiri Akbarfam, Mahdieh Heidaripour, Hoda Maleki, Gokila Dorai · 5 authors

Maintaining accurate provenance records is paramount in digital forensics, as they underpin evidence credibility and integrity, addressing essential aspects like accountability and reproducibility. Blockchains have several properties that can address these requirements. Previous systems utilized public blockchains, i.e., treated blockchain as a black box, and benefiting from the immutability property. However, the blockchain was accessible to everyone, giving rise to security concerns and moreover, efficient extraction of provenance faces challenges due to the enormous scale and complexity of digital data. This necessitates a tailored blockchain design for digital forensics. Our solution, Forensiblock has a novel design that automates investigation steps, ensures secure data access, traces data origins, preserves records, and expedites provenance extraction. Forensiblock incorporates Role-Based Access Control with Staged Authorization (RBAC-SA) and a distributed Merkle root for case tracking. These features support authorized resource access with an efficient retrieval of provenance records. Particularly, comparing two methods for extracting provenance records - off-chain storage retrieval with Merkle root verification and a brute-force search - the off-chain method is significantly better, especially as the blockchain size and number of cases increase. We also found that our distributed Merkle root creation slightly increases smart contract processing time but significantly improves history access. Overall, we show that Forensiblock offers secure, efficient, and reliable handling of digital forensic data.

Danielle Alves Batista, Ana Mangeth, Isabella Frajhof, Paulo Henrique Alves · 8 authors

Blockchain technology, initially known for its applications in the financial industry, has emerged as a promising solution for various other domains. One prominent area for the use of blockchain-based solutions is forensics, specifically the chain of custody maintenance and control. While there have been numerous research projects exploring the use of blockchain technology in digital forensics, limited attention has been given to its application in controlling of the physical evidence chain of custody. In this research, we aim to explore the literature on the use of blockchain technology to solve problems related to the physical evidence chain of custody. Through a systematic literature review (SLR), we analyzed 26 resources discussing blockchain-based solutions for evidence chain of custody issues, based on requirements that could be applied to both physical and digital evidence. The results showed that there is a lack of studies involving the use of blockchain technology to solve problems related to the physical evidence chain of custody, and future research should focus on solving the issue.

Esa Fauzi, Sy Yuliani, Yenie Syukriyah, Azizah Zakiah

Single Sign-On (SSO) is a mechanism that allows users to access various services using a single set of login credentials. However, in SSO implementations, there are still challenges related to security and authentication management, particularly attacks targeting the Identity Provider (IDP). To address this, the use of Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) as proof of IDP ownership has been proposed as a solution to enhance security in the authentication mechanism. The utilization of NFTs in SSO with OpenID Connect and OAuth 2.0 has the potential to improve security and convenience in the authentication process due to the unique and non-duplicable nature of NFTs. The results of this research present a model and design of SSO with NFTs on OpenID Connect and OAuth 2.0. An SSO application with login, register, and password recovery features was also developed to provide convenience to users during the login process. The findings conclude that the utilization of NFTs in SSO with OpenID Connect and OAuth 2.0 has the potential to enhance security and convenience in the authentication mechanism. Further research is needed to explore aspects such as scalability, in-depth security analysis, testing in real-world scenarios, improvement of integration and interoperability, as well as comparative analysis with other SSO technologies.