ABSTRACT The Internet of Vehicles (IoV) is a critical component of the smart city. Various nodes exchange sensitive data for urban mobility, such as identification, position, messages, speed, and traffic statistics. Along with developing smart cities come threats to privacy and security through networks. Security is of the highest priority, considering various securityâprivacy risks from the wellness, safety, and confidentiality of men and women inside the vehicle. This survey presents a detailed analysis of stateâofâtheâart and evolving security challenges to IoV systems. It handles security challenges, such as data integrity and privacy. It also includes a critical review of the literature to identify gaps in current security mechanisms. It uses complete mathematical modeling and case studies to show the practical effectiveness of the proposed solutions. It aims to guide future development and implementation of more secure, efficient, and resilient IoV systems, particularly in smart city environments. It also introduces a novel Intrusion Detection System (IDS) with Artificial Intelligence (AI), smart contracts, and blockchain technology. These smart contracts ensure instant security with the utmost level of vulnerability through blockchain technology. In addition, we proposed a hybrid multiâlayered framework using Fog to conserve the resources at the vehicle level. We used mathematical proof to assess this framework. Merging blockchain, smart contracts, and AI into IoVs could increase human security by removing significant vulnerabilities.
The Internet of Vehicles facilitates seamless Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) communication, offering a myriad of services ranging from traffic management to data exchange and route scheduling. However, the existence of malicious Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) poses significant security and privacy threats to data communications and vehicle users, respectively. Therefore, it is crucial to verify the identity and preserve the privacy of AVs before offering V2X services within each vehicular broadcast domain. To address the aforementioned issues, a novel privacy-preserving lightweight Fast Reed-Solomon Interactive Oracle Proof of Proximity using polynomial commitment-based authentication protocol is presented. The AVs are initially registered with a trusted authority in this protocol. After that, they are authenticated by roadside units in their respective broadcast domains using a zero-knowledge proof-based challenge-response mechanism. As per the performance analysis, the proposed protocol surpasses state-of-the-art authentication protocols and achieves notable improvements of 19.43% in registration computation time, 50.96% in registration latency, 89.75% in authentication computation time, 14.97% in authentication latency, 97.42% in handover computation time, and 95.84% in handover latency, compared to other protocols. A qualitative security analysis is also carried out to prove that the proposed protocol provides anonymity, privacy, user verifiability, and untraceability features.
ABSTRACT The emergence of wireless technology brought about enhanced communication across various devices, resulting in the demand for efficient and reliable wireless networks, like wireless mesh networks (WMNs) and mobile Adâhoc Networks (MANETs). MANETs are known for their decentralized nature, rapid deployment, infrastructureâless operation, adaptability, and ease of use in several applications and outdoor events. Despite their flexibility, they often face challenges relating to security vulnerabilities, together with blackhole and grayhole attacks, and tradeâoffs in terms of performance relating to reliability and integrity. This paper proposes an improved, innovative routing protocol for Adâhoc OnâDemand Distance Vector (AODV) by infusion of blockchain's proof of stake (PoS) consensus mechanism named PoSAODV, whose objective is to enhance security, energyâefficiency, and adaptability while reducing packet loss rate, routing overheads, and increasing throughput. Smart contractâbased validator selection was utilized to ensure fairness and reduce blackhole and grayhole attacks. The result obtained through simulation demonstrates that PoSAODV outperforms the original AODV by reduced latency of 0.79 ms , average throughput of 45 Mbps , and packet delivery ratio of 80%â100% in both unsafe and safe environments. This makes PoSAODV suitable for resourceâconstrained adâhoc networks with dynamic topologies.
With the rapid development of vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs) and the increasing diversification of user demands, interactions between different management domains have become more frequent. Identity authentication is an effective way to establish cross-domain trust and secure communication. However, the existing cross-domain authentication schemes of VANETs are limited to the same management or authentication technology for each domain and rely on centralized cross-domain identity management. Even distributed management solutions encounter latency sensitivity, security and privacy challenges. To address these challenges, we propose a blockchain-assisted revocable cross-domain authentication scheme for VANETs. The proposed scheme can establish trust between domain entities by deploying different authentication methods and using distributed management to avoid single-point failures. In addition, the scheme can revoke the identity of malicious vehicles by updating the group public key, thereby ensuring the security and privacy of cross-domain Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) communication. This design avoids the additional impacts of blockchain technology constraints on the high mobility and real-time requirements of VANETs. Security analysis and performance evaluation show that our scheme can resist more attacks and has better security than other related schemes while also achieving a better balance between communication and computational cost.
Vijayan Sugumaran, E. Dinesh, R. Ramya, Elangovan Muniyandy
This research work proposes a Distributed Blockchain-Assisted Secure Data Aggregation (Block-DSD) technique for MANETs, ensuring high security and energy efficiency in disaster management scenarios. A Zone-based Clustering Approach (ZCA) is employed to segment the network into secure zones, with optimal Cluster Heads (CHs) selected using the Artificial Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS). Data aggregation is secured through a Two-Step Secure (STS) method and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), while optimal routing is achieved using the Improved Elephant Herd Optimization (IEHO) algorithm. Simulations using ns-3.25 demonstrate a 97% Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), 20% lower energy consumption compared to existing methods, and minimal latency of 0.0012 s for emergency data, validating the proposed framework's efficiency and robustness in dynamic MANET environments.
Praneetha Surapaneni, Sriramulu Bojjagani, Muhammad Khurram Khan
Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) improve vehicle connectivity, traffic efficiency, and road safety. Conversely, quick and safe vehicle authentication still poses a significant issue, especially at the handover time when switching between roadside units (RSUs), where network efficacy is influenced by computational overhead and re-authentication delays. To overcome these issues, this paper proposes DYNAMIC-TRUST. This blockchain-based authentication framework relies on the Proof of Trust (PoT) consensus mechanism to avoid redundant re-authentication, minimizing computation and communication costs. Compared to conventional authentication approaches, our method decentralizes vehicle revocation, allowing RSUs to revoke compromised vehicles autonomously without relying on a trusted authority, providing resilience regardless of adversarial conditions. The proposed frameworkâs resistance to identity theft, replay, and Sybil attacks has been proven by formal security analysis using Scyther and the Real-Or-Random (ROR) oracle model. Also, the Simulation of Urban Mobility (SUMO) is used to evaluate real-world practicality, proving improved scalability, lowered authentication latency, and greater network efficiency over various vehicular circumstances. Blockchainâs potential for enhancing vehicular network performance, trust, and security is highlighted in this study, which helps to develop smart cities and 6G-enabled Internet of Vehicles (IoV) infrastructures.
Dong Liu, Juan S. Giraldo, Peter PĂĄlenskĂ˝, Pedro P. Vergara
Model-free power flow calculation, driven by the rise of smart meter (SM) data and the lack of network topology, often relies on artificial intelligence neural networks (ANNs). However, training ANNs require vast amounts of SM data, posing privacy risks for households in distribution networks. To ensure customers' privacy during the SM data gathering and online sharing, we introduce a privacy preserving PF calculation framework, composed of two local strategies: a local randomisation strategy (LRS) and a local zero-knowledge proof (ZKP)-based data collection strategy. First, the LRS is used to achieve irreversible transformation and robust privacy protection for active and reactive power data, thereby ensuring that personal data remains confidential. Subsequently, the ZKP-based data collecting strategy is adopted to securely gather the training dataset for the ANN, enabling SMs to interact with the distribution system operator without revealing the actual voltage magnitude. Moreover, to mitigate the accuracy loss induced by the seasonal variations in load profiles, an incremental learning strategy is incorporated into the online application. The results across three datasets with varying measurement errors demonstrate that the proposed framework efficiently collects one month of SM data within one hour. Furthermore, it robustly maintains mean errors of 0.005 p.u. and 0.014 p.u. under multiple measurement errors and seasonal variations in load profiles, respectively.
The integration of intelligent transportation systems (ITS) within the smart grid has significantly enhanced the reliability, efficiency, and security of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) services over the past decade, leading to increased research interest in this technology. Charging stations (CSs) utilize electric vehicles (EVs) to manage demand response and provide sustainable energy solutions. However, the transmission of information between EVs and CSs via public channels causes critical security vulnerabilities. Although much effort has been made to overcome the challenge of protecting security and privacy in V2G environments, these efforts have either been proposed based on a centralized architecture or do not ensure essential security requirements, such as self-sovereignty, reliable, and blockchain scalability. Furthermore, in decentralized network, it is difficult to provide reliable energy distribution because a malicious participant can easily try to inflate trading volumes and manipulate energy prices. In this paper, we propose a new blockchain-enabled, reliable, privacy-preserving scheme using decentralized identifiers (DIDs) for preventing energy wash trading in V2G networks called BAPS-DITS. BAPS-DITS guarantees to tackle the above challenges without a trusted third-party intervention. Additionally, we use informal and formal (mathematical) analysis to prove the security of BAPS-DITS and conduct a comparative analysis comparing the security properties, computational cost, and communication cost of BAPS-DITS to previous studies. Furthermore, we implement BAPS-DITS on a practical Ethereum network, demonstrating its efficiency and feasibility, showing that BAPS-DITS provides self-sovereignty, accountability, and blockchain scalability; thus, it is suitable for actual V2G environments.
ChienâMing Chen, Yiru Hao, Saru Kumari, Mohammed Amoon
Transportation Cyber-Physical System (T-CPS) is a pivotal technology for advancing Intelligent Transportation System, integrating physical transportation infrastructure with network technology and computational algorithms. This integration facilitates real-time road condition monitoring, accurate traffic forecasting, and efficient traffic management to reduce congestion and enhance safety. However, relying on public channels for data transmission in T-CPS exposes it to numerous security threats. Addressing these challenges, this paper proposes an intelligence blockchain-based lightweight authentication protocol to enhance the security and trustworthiness of Intelligent Transportation System. The protocol is designed to resist common attacks, such as capture attacks and insider privileged personnel attacks, ensuring secure vehicle communication. Through rigorous Real-Or-Random model formal proofs, the security properties of the protocol are validated. Furthermore, the efficiency of the protocol is demonstrated, showing its lightweight nature and security robustness. This work represents a significant step toward secure, reliable, and efficient communication in vehicular networks, paving the way for more robust T-CPS applications, including autonomous driving and real-time traffic management.
Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) facilitate data communication across multiple nodes and hop stations, characterized by their dynamic topology. This inherent flexibility, however, makes MANETs vulnerable to various security threats, notably blackhole and wormhole attacks, where malicious nodes can intercept and manipulate data. This study investigates the security vulnerabilities of MANETs, particularly against blackhole, Sybil, and wormhole attacks, and introduces the Advanced Blockchain Dynamic Source Routing (ABCD) algorithm to address these challenges. Motivated by the need for robust and decentralized security solutions in MANETs, the proposed algorithm integrates blockchain technology and homomorphic encryption to secure data communication without intermediate decryption. The ABCD algorithm leverages Dijkstraâs algorithm for optimal routing and employs a tamper-proof, decentralized data storage approach. Comparative analysis under attack scenarios reveals that the ABCD algorithm outperforms the standard DSR protocol across multiple quality of service metrics, demonstrating a significant improvement in MANET security over equivalent studies. The packet delivery rate is also improved from 81 to 92% using the modified ABCD algorithm.
This systematic review examines the integration of directed acyclic graph (DAG)-based blockchain technology in smart mobility ecosystems, focusing on electric vehicles (EVs), robotic systems, and drone swarms. Adhering to PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a comprehensive literature search across Web of Science, Scopus, IEEE Xplore, and ACM Digital Library, screening 1248 records to identify 47 eligible studies. Our analysis demonstrates that DAG-based blockchain addresses critical limitations of traditional blockchains by enabling parallel transaction processing, achieving high throughput (>1000 TPS), and reducing latency (<1 s), which are essential for real-time applications like autonomous vehicle coordination and microtransactions in EV charging. Key technical challenges include consensus mechanism complexity, probabilistic finality, and vulnerabilities to attacks such as double-spending and Sybil attacks. This study identifies five research priorities: (1) standardized performance benchmarks, (2) formal security proofs for DAG protocols, (3) hybrid consensus models combining DAG with Byzantine fault tolerance, (4) privacy-preserving cryptographic techniques, and (5) optimization of feeless microtransactions. These advancements are critical for deploying robust, scalable DAG-based solutions in smart mobility, and fostering secure and efficient urban transportation networks.
In the absence of a permanent infrastructure, the networks are utilized for temporary events, military operations, and disaster recovery. A Blockchain-Enabled Intelligent Vehicle Communication Systems: Trust Bit Rewards and Clustering for Autonomous Vehicles (BIVC-CA), an algorithm designed to ensure secure communication between devices and optimize efficient routing in intelligent vehicle systems, is also used to provide quick emergency response. Using blockchain, each vehicle is given its own Bit Trust ID to track its past data and calculate its trust levels. This system ensures transparency and trust between vehicles through cryptographic processes such as key generation, secure message encryption, and message verification, which improve overall communication security. It also includes an Emergency Vehicle Communication System (EUC) that uses OBU devices and sensors to detect collisions and send GSM-based rescue messages, greatly improving road safety and the efficiency of emergency operations. The road-based clustering model optimizes route selection considering traffic conditions and distances and organizes vehicles into clusters to ensure effective communication and coordination. Using the path distance algorithm, clustering is achieved by computing the similarity of routes and grouping accordingly for efficient route management with minimal network congestion. In addition, the model introduces a comprehensive network architecture that integrates vehicle cloud technology and blockchain technology, enabling intelligent vehicles to make quick decisions based on real-time data. With these integrated components, the BIVC-CA model provides a reliable framework for secure data transmission, intelligent routing, and rapid emergency response. This framework will ultimately improve the efficiency of intelligent vehicle systems and contribute to the development of advanced vehicle networks and smarter transportation solutions. We calculated the results with routing expenses, packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, throughput, and packet loss ratio using this our BIVC-CA model has achieved less routing expenses, and delay.
Zahraa Sh. Alzaidi, Ali A. Yassin, Zaid Ameen Abduljabbar, Vincent Omollo Nyangaresi
Authentication of vehicles and users, integrity of exchanged messages, and privacy preservation are essential features in VANETs. VANETs are used to collect information on road conditions, vehicle location and speed, and traffic congestion data. The open exchange of information within VANETs poses serious security threats. Furthermore, existing schemes have higher communication and computational costs, making them incompatible with resource-constrained VANET applications. This study proposes a multifactor authentication and privacy-preserving security scheme for VANETs based on blockchain and fog computing to meet all these requirements. The proposed scheme uses fingerprints and Quick Response (QR) codes as a multifactor to authenticate vehicle users and fog-cloud computing techniques to reduce the computational burden on RSUs and improve service quality and resilience. Additionally, the scheme synchronizes a consistent ledger across all RSUs using blockchain technology to store and distribute vehicle authentication statuses. Through a thorough comparison with relevant current protocols, the scheme shows a much-reduced computing expense and communication burden in situations with high vehicle density within a timeframe of 6.3846 ms and 544 bytes for communication costs. In addition, the proposed scheme demonstrates a successful balance between efficacy and complexity, protecting confidentiality, anonymous authentication, and ensuring integrity and conditional tracking. Formal and informal security analysis showed that the proposed scheme is more reliable, practical, and secure against many hostile attacks, such as modification attacks, 51% attacks, Sybil attacks, and MITM attacks.
Qi An, Frank Jiang, Chengzu Dong, Shantanu Pal ¡ 7 authors
The rapid expansion of electric vehicle (EV) infrastructure necessitates advanced solutions for secure and private authentication at EV charging stations. This research introduces a blockchain-based framework enhanced with self-sovereign identity (SSI) features, targeting the improvement of privacy and security in cyber marketplaces for EVs. The inclusion of SSI enables users to maintain full control over their digital identities, a critical advancement for authentication processes at EV charging stations. This system effectively addresses the growing privacy and security challenges within the expanding EV infrastructure. By integrating Zero-knowledge proof with self-sovereign identity, the framework not only ensures robust security but also preserves user privacy by enabling users to prove their identity without exposing sensitive personal information. We propose an efficient and user-friendly solution, showcasing its potential as a pioneering innovation in the field of EV charging infrastructure.
Lukas Smirek, Jens Griesing, Tobias HĂśpfer, Daniel Stetter
Advances in electric vehicles and charging infrastructure technology have given the electrification of road traffic a positive momentum. Nowadays, it is becoming more and more evident that the related energy and financial processes of the current e-mobility ecosystem are reaching their limits. This leads to usability losses for end users as well as administrative and non-causation-based financial burdens on various energy system participants. In this article, use cases are inferred from the literature, the aforementioned challenges are discussed in more detail, and strategies for addressing them are presented. Furthermore, the information system architecture of the BANULA project, with its core elements of open communication standards, virtual balancing areas, and blockchain components, is explained. BANULA addresses the aforementioned challenges by holistically considering the needs of all participants. A special focus of the project is implementing and investigating the concept of virtual balancing areas. This concept has been available since 2020 but has not been implemented in the market yet. To the best of the authorsâ knowledge, BANULA is the first project that utilizes current legislation to transfer charging infrastructure to virtual balancing areas in conjunction with distributed ledger technology to support related processes. In the first step, the BANULA implementation prototype targets the German e-mobility ecosystem, but applicability to other states in the European Union is planned. Using an independent framework, the BANULA architecture and its prototypical implementation are evaluated. The authors show that the unique combination of virtual balancing areas and the related processes, enhanced through distributed ledger technology, has the potential to contribute to a user-centered, trustworthy, and grid-supportive e-mobility ecosystem.
As a critical component in federated learning (FL), secure aggregation enables the server to learn the aggregated model without observing clientsâ local training gradients. However, limited by computation and communication capabilities, existing aggregation schemes are not suitable to be directly employed in the Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) scenario. In this paper, we present a secure aggregation framework constructed with k-regular graph over VANETs scenario. We first optimize the secure aggregation scheme proposed by Bell et al. (CCS 2020). Specifically, using this new building block and an identity authentication mechanism in the vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication mode, we design an optimized aggregation scheme that, when executed among n vehicles, can further reduce$2n$communication times between vehicles and the central server while guaranteeing logarithmic overhead. Besides, by applying a zero-knowledge proof to the authentication process, our proposal supports vehicles anonymously constructing the k-regular graph and completing parameter computation process, which enhances privacy preservation in semi-honest settings. Under the experiment and security analysis, our proposal is demonstrated to be able to effectively achieve privacy preservation while achieving less computation and communication overheads compared to state-of-the-art aggregation schemes.
Yushintia Pramitarini, Ridho Hendra Yoga Perdana, Kyusung Shim, Beongku An
In this paper, we propose a novel federated blockchain (FedChain)-based clustering protocol to enhance network security and connectivity in flying ad hoc networks (FANETs) with cell-free massive MIMO (CF-mMIMO). By leveraging blockchain technology and federated learning (FL), the cluster can be protected against Sybil attacks, enabling secure cluster formation without increasing the number of control packets. We formulate the cost function maximization problem based on cross-layer design, which integrates physical layer information (mobility, position, channel capacity, and remaining energy) and network layer parameters (connectivity) to optimize the formation of stable clusters with minimal control overhead. Furthermore, we select the optimal cluster heads (CHs) based on the highest remaining energy and velocity-constrained criteria, ensuring long-term stability. To solve the security issue, blockchain technology is adopted to validate transactions among nodes and ensure secure formation by distinguishing legitimate users and Sybil attack nodes. Additionally, we develop a novel FL framework to predict and distinguish node status in real time without additional control packets, improving security and control overhead performance during cluster formation. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed FedChain-based clustering protocol outperforms the lowest ID (LI), high connectivity degree (HCD), and conventional blockchain-based clustering (CBC) protocols in terms of connectivity, control overhead, and security performance. The results highlight that the FedChain-based clustering protocol provides robust security and connectivity, making it well-suited for dynamic FANET environments.
Using blockchain technology and smart transportation gadgets, this paper proposes the next-generation VANET system. While VANET has many advantages, it must first be improved in areas such as security and privacy if it is to be widely adopted. Nearby vehicles periodically exchange events providing their unique identifiers, locations, speeds, and statuses. Using key cryptography, it must verify the legitimacy of each car in the network before allowing it to participate, and it must take the blame for any malicious activity that occurs on the road. Due to the fast speeds of vehicles, limited communication capacity, and delay sensitive applications, traditional centralised security solutions are not applicable in VANET. The purpose of this study is to imagine a new blockchain protocol for secure event transactions in a virtual autonomous network (VANET). Blockchain is a distributed ledger system that facilitates resource tracking and administration without the need for a central authority. Therefore, a blockchain-based solution that offers transparency, tamper resistance, and immutability is preferable in a VANET scenario.
Open access
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs)
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
The rapid development of Internet of Things technology has promoted the popularization of Internet of Vehicles, and its safety and reliability have become the focus of intelligent transportation system research. Vehicle-road collaboration relies on the collaborative computing and storage resources of the vehicle on-board unit (OBU), which are usually limited. When the vehicle in the edge area needs to do computing tasks such as intelligent driving, but its own computing resources are insufficient. Therefore, it needs other computing resources from idle vehicles and road side unit (RSU). This resource sharing can get additional computing resources to complete the task, and can be more convenient to complete the computing task quickly. Most current studies consider this type of resource sharing as a vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) network transaction, aiming to stimulate the enthusiasm of vehicle sharing and optimize the utilization of computing resources in edge areas. However, the traditional blockchain transaction mode exposes serious privacy disclosure risks in vehicle networking resource transactions, including the openness and transparency of user identity, transaction details, and transaction addresses, which poses great challenges to data security. Therefore, this study innovatively proposed a blockchain-based privacy protection scheme for vehicle networking resource transaction details. By introducing committed value protection, zero-knowledge proof technology and constructing temporary transaction addressed mechanism. The scheme realized the comprehensive privacy protection of transaction funds, transaction details and transaction addresses, which could effectively avoid the disclosure of users' sensitive information. Compared with the existing methods, the proposed scheme not only greatly enhanced the privacy protection capability, but also ensured the efficiency and security of transaction verification through zero-knowledge proof, avoiding the direct exposure of private keys. Meanwhile, the experimental verification demonstrates that the scheme not only enhances the level of privacy protection but also does not augment the supplementary processing burden. Furthermore, it is evident that the scheme meets the rigorous requirements for real-time resource transactions in the Internet of Vehicles.
Zia Ullah, Ghassan Husnain, Abid Iqbal, Ibrar Ali Shah ¡ 8 authors
ABSTRACT Vehicular adâhoc networks (VANETs) are pivotal in intelligent transportation systems (ITS), enabling enhanced traffic efficiency and safety. However, VANETs within ITS face critical challenges related to trust, privacy, and data reliability. To address these issues, this paper proposes a comprehensive solution that integrates blockchain and InterPlanetary file system (IPFS) technologies for ITS applications. We introduce a blockchainâbased trust management system, TrustChainâVANETs, designed to ensure message credibility, privacy, and data reliability in ITS environments. Our model safeguards vehicle privacy while enabling credible messages to be shared through anonymous aggregate vehicular announcements, an essential feature for ITS. Reputation values, stored in the blockchain, allow roadside units (RSUs) to assess message reliability, achieving a 15% higher malicious vehicle detection rate compared to traditional methods at low probabilities of false reporting, crucial for trust in ITS. Additionally, conditional privacy is maintained by tracking malicious entities through public addresses, ensuring accountability in ITS. The system leverages IPFS on RSUs for secure, reliable data storage, with aggregated event data from vehicles stored in IPFS and vehicle reputation values maintained on the blockchain, addressing storage and cost challenges in ITS. This approach reduces transaction costs by 20% and decreases storage overhead by 30%, enhancing the efficiency of ITS data sharing. An incentive mechanism encourages honest data sharing among vehicles, with monetary rewards for aligning with verified event information, transparently recorded on the blockchain. Performance analysis demonstrates that TrustChainâVANETs reduces message verification time by an average of 25% compared to traditional proofâofâwork blockchain models, making it suitable for the dynamic and demanding nature of ITS. This innovative framework addresses critical challenges in VANETs, delivering robust, scalable, and efficient solutions for security, privacy, and reliability in ITS.