D. Sumathi, T. Poongodi, Ramasamy Lakshmana Kumar, Balamurugan Balusamy
Consensus algorithms play the significant role in any blockchain system since it has to prove its performance and security. Hence, there is a need to identify the curbs of various consensus algorithms. The features of several kinds of blockchain systems rely on the consensus techniques. A detailed analysis of the algorithms has been done which might throw the limelight to researchers to devise a novel consensus algorithm. Issues due to the adoption of the consensus and solutions to overcome have been discussed. The main contribution of this work is to provide a deep insight into the consensus algorithms and its properties. There are several metrics considerations for evaluating the performance of consensus protocols. Additionally, the energy consumption of Bitcoin and Ethereum of several countries has also been presented in this work. Finally, the most commonly used consensus algorithm has been analysed along with its variant information.
Maede Hojjati, Arian Arabnouri, Alireza Shafieinejad, Halim Yanıkömeroğlu
Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM) is an essential part of the mobile network mainly for providing identification and authentication of the subscriber. The activation and deactivation of USIMs are the two most critical services that must be supported by Mobile Network Operators (MNOs). The current solutions suffer from several limitations such as the lack of round-the-clock services and the presence of a single point of failure. In this paper, we propose a blockchain-based scheme for USIM management. Each MNO creates its own smart contract and publishes its address to subscribers. Subscribers can then directly submit their requests by registering a transaction that invokes a specific function of the smart contract. The proposed scheme provides an anytime-anywhere service while at the same time it leverages the benefits of blockchain technology, such as a decentralized architecture that prevents Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks, as well as a secure auditable log and payment using cryptocurrency. Moreover, we provide a security proof for the scheme through formal verification. Our results demonstrate that our scheme ensures subscriber privacy while providing mutual authentication among participants. Finally, our evaluation on the Ethereum blockchain confirms the efficiency of the scheme in terms of both transaction and execution costs.
As decentralization and the use of distributed ledger technology spread through more businesses and sectors, the world is going through a huge change. This change is being made because of a desire for more openness, safety, and efficiency in operations, as well as to give people and groups more autonomy.
The increasing complexity of decentralized financial systems has necessitated advanced orchestration mechanisms capable of managing dynamic, distributed microservices. Conventional orchestration methods tend to be less flexible, scalable and transparent to support real time financial functions. The proposed paper presents a new Hierarchical Agentic Orchestration architecture, which uses neuro-symbolic intelligence to facilitate the dynamism in composing a workflow in decentralized finance (DeFi) systems. The suggested model uses a multi-level hierarchy of intelligent agents such global, domain and local agents which are coordinated by the use of meta-controller mechanisms. The complex workflows can be broken into parts in this structure and also it promotes real time flexibility. The neuro-symbolic layer unites machine learning predictive analytics models with symbolic rule enforcement and compliance with a need to ensure flexibility and interpretability. Moreover, the blockchain and smart contract offer a level of trust, immutability, and auditability, which solve the essential issues of decentralized systems. The implementation is carried out on the microservices-based architecture with an event-driven communication channel, which allows workflow execution to be scaled and resilient. The experimental findings show that there are significant latency, throughput, and accuracy improvements with experimental techniques as opposed to the conventional techniques of orchestration. The system is also highly adaptable to the dynamic load and keeps within the predefined policies. On the whole, the study introduces an all-encompassing and intelligent orchestration paradigm that promotes efficiency, transparency, and reliability of decentralized financial ecosystems, which is the foundation of next-generation autonomous financial systems.
Davide Frey, Lucie Guillou, Michel Raynal, François Taı̈ani
This paper explores the territory that lies between best-effort Byzantine-Fault-Tolerant Conflict-free Replicated Data Types (BFT CRDTs) and totally ordered distributed ledgers, such as those implemented by Blockchains. It formally characterizes a novel class of distributed objects that only requires a First In First Out (FIFO) order on the object operations from each process (taken individually). The formalization leverages Mazurkiewicz traces to define legal sequences of operations and ensure both Strong Eventual Consistency (SEC) and Pipleline Consistency (PC). The paper presents a generic algorithm that implements this novel class of distributed objects both in a crash- and Byzantine setting. It also illustrates the practical interest of the proposed approach using four instances of this class of objects, namely money transfer, Petri nets, multi-sets, and concurrent work stealing dequeues.
Robert Cowlishaw, Red Boumghar, Ashwin Arulselvan, Annalisa Riccardi
The quantity and diversity of stakeholders in space is increasing and centralised management of their assets is becoming more complex. New technologies in Web3 such as Decentralised Autonomous Organisations (DAOs) can bridge the communication gap with neutral and automated systems, and distribute currently centralised processes that are inherently decentralised by nature. One of these processes is Satellite-based Emergency Mapping (SEM) for Disaster Response Management (DRM). With automated decision strategies and transparent ledgers, a fairer and more accessible system can be built to handle the increase in stakeholders as well as the increasing number of natural disasters occurring. A DAO also address' the key issue with the current SEM process, such as decreasing the current three days wait, required to produce the necessary processed and analysed data for end users, after the disaster occurs. Moreover, with fleets of satellites belonging to different governmental and private organisations, a specific central authority cannot be identified to manage the process in an efficient and equitable way. The paper discusses the need for a more decentralised and automated system for DRM by presenting evidence of current bottlenecks and lays the foundations of the first DAO for on-orbit assets management and demonstrates which Web3 technologies could further improve SEM in this first phase of charter activation.
Tehnologija lanca blokova transformirala je područje digitalnih valuta omogućivši decentralizirane transakcije i riješivši problem dvostruke potrošnje. Transparentna i decentralizirana priroda lanca blokova ima potencijal donijeti značajne promjene u industrijama kao što su upravljanje opskrbnim lancem, decentralizirane financije, zdravstvo, državne službe i prava intelektualnog vlasništva. U području humanitarnoga razminiranja osigurava pouzdanost i sigurnost podataka koji mogu dolaziti iz raznih izvora. Kako bi se olakšala integracija s Cardano čvorom, razvijeno je programsko rješenje koje omogućuje stvaranje nezamjenjivih tokena na Cardano lancu blokova. Takvo rješenje služi kao posrednik između drugih aplikacija i Cardano lanca blokova te pojednostavljuje složene transakcijske procese i kriptografske potpise. Kako bi se osigurala kompatibilnost, sigurnost, skalabilnost i učinkovitost korištenja resursa, aplikacija je zapakirana u Docker kontejner. Utjecaj lanca blokova obuhvaća više sektora, nudeći decentralizirana i transparentna rješenja koja potiču inovacije i poboljšavaju operativnu učinkovitost.
<em>Electronic commerce (e-commerce) has revolutionized the way businesses operate worldwide. This technology has enabled online trading and economic services across various industries. Third-party marketplaces, known for their trusted intermediation and secure online transaction services to anonymous internet traders, are among the drivers of e-commerce. These centralized corporations charge a fee for their services, but online trading is not immune to various crimes such as identity theft, non-payment, delayed service delivery, and other attendant risks. To mitigate these problems, this research proposes a prototype system that utilizes blockchain technology to achieve decentralization in internet trade. The system's proof-of-concept utilizes the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) and Interplanetary File System (IPFS). The proposed system can work with EVM-compatible blockchains such as Tron, the Binance Smart Chain, Matic network, Tomo chain, and Rootstock (RSK) network. The study demonstrates the potential of blockchain technology in e-commerce by providing a decentralized marketplace that is free from centralized control. By removing intermediaries, the proposed system eliminates the need for trust in third-party marketplaces, which in turn reduces transaction costs, and ensures transparency and accountability. The findings of this research highlight the practicality of using blockchain technology in e-commerce, and how it can significantly reduce transaction costs, improve security, and promote decentralization</em><em>.</em>
Crowdfunding is a popular method for raising funds for projects, businesses, and social causes.However, traditional crowdfunding platforms are often centralized, opaque, and inefficient.In recent years, Blockchain technology has become a potentially effective remedy to these problems.By leveraging the benefits of blockchain, such as transparency, security, and efficiency, we can create a new paradigm for crowdfunding that is decentralized, transparent, and efficient.In this paper, we explore the use of blockchain in crowdfunding and describe a prototype crowdfunding platform that uses Solidity, Next.js,Node.js,Polygon, Metamask, IPFS, and Infura to provide a secure, efficient, and transparent way for users to create and donate to campaigns on the Ethereum blockchain.The use of smart contracts ensures that the funds are securely and efficiently allocated, while the integration of IPFS and Infura allows for decentralized storage of data and access to the Ethereum network.Our prototype demonstrates the potential of blockchain-based crowdfunding to transform the way we fund projects and causes.
the framework of relevant moral, safety, and ethical governance, we can generate various transportation planning schemes, different traffic application scenarios, and various ma nagement a nd control algorithms through only a few words.Gone are those days when we had to draw pictures one by one, set parameters one by one, and write code line by line.Meantime, the decentralized autonomous organization (DAO) is on the way.With no doubt, in the near future, with a clear sign of vitality, DAO and decentralized science (DeSci) will gradually become a new stream of scientific research and management organization mode, showing great
Since the first appearance of the World Wide Web, individuals have increasingly relied on the Internet for cyber social activities. The second phase of the World Wide Web, known as Web 2.0, has extensively attracted worldwide people who participate in creating and enjoying the virtual realm. Today, the next Internet revolution, Web3, will open new opportunities for conventional social models. The decentralization property of Web3 is capable of breaking the monopoly of Internet corporations. Moreover, Web3 will lead to a paradigm shift from the Web functioning solely as a publishing medium to one that fosters intensive interaction and participation. This shift will profoundly influence the interactions between users and platforms, relationships within production networks, and global economic models. As a result, it is necessary that this article technically, practically, and more broadly take an overview of Web3. This article presents a comprehensive survey of Web3, focusing on current technologies, challenges, opportunities, and outlook. This article first introduces several key technologies underlying Web3. Then, some types of Web3 applications (e.g., blockchain) are illustrated in detail. Blockchain and smart contracts ensure decentralized organizations are less trusted and more truthful than centralized ones. Decentralized finance will be global, and open with financial inclusiveness for unbanked people. This article also discusses the relationship between the Metaverse and Web3, including the differences and similarities between Web 3.0 and Web3. Drawing inspiration from Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, a novel hierarchy of needs theory within Web3 is proposed. Finally, several worthwhile future research directions of Web3 are discussed.
Abstract We introduce semitopology, a generalization of point-set topology that removes the restriction that intersections of open sets need necessarily be open. The intuition is that points represent participants in a decentralized system, and open sets represent collections of participants that collectively have the authority to collaborate to update their local state; we call this an actionable coalition. Examples of actionable coalition include: majority stakes in proof-of-stake blockchains; communicating peers in peer-to-peer networks; and even pedestrians working together to not bump into one another in the street. Where actionable coalitions exist, they have in common that collaborations are local (updating the states of the participants in the coalition, but not immediately those of the whole system); collaborations are voluntary (up to and including breaking rules); participants may be heterogeneous in their computing power or in their goals (not all pedestrians want to go to the same place); participants can choose with whom to collaborate; and they are not assumed subject to permission or synchronization by a central authority. We develop a topology-flavoured mathematics that goes some way to explaining how and why these complex decentralized systems can exhibit order, and gives us new ways to understand existing practical implementations. Semitopology is also interesting in and of itself, having a rich and interesting theory that quickly deviates from standard accounts on topological spaces. It soon becomes clear that the most interesting semitopologies are rather ill-behaved from the usual viewpoint, as they are never Hausdorff. A notion of ‘transitive open sets’ (topens) becomes central to the story, as topens define subsets of participants who should decide the same value in a distributed system that tries to achieve consensus, and points are called ‘regular’ when they have a topen neighbourhood. The theory is then further developed by introducing intertwined points, closures, closed sets and two interesting characterizations of regularity.
Welcome to the fifteenth Jubilee International Symposium on Autonomous Decentralized Systems (ISADS).As Lifetime Honorary Chair, I would like to thank you for coming to ISADS 2023. ISADS was founded in 1993 atKawasaki, Japan.Since then, ISADSs have been held world-wide every two years except in 2021 due to pandemic.They were successful in their high quality and broad international participation from academia, government and industry.At the first ISADS, the concept of autonomous decentralized systems (ADS) was well recognized.During the last 30 years, fields of ADS have been substantially advanced to provide solutions for control, communication, computing, service systems and further to organization and finance management, such as FinTech along with rapid development of other related technologies and management.ISADS 2023 reflects not only such maturity but also innovation in ADS concept, technology and application as well as further integration with other heterogeneous fields.Now, structures of Society, Value, Business and Technology have been unpredictably and rapidly transformed under climate change, pandemic and economic turmoil.ADS, which behaves as a living system comprised of largely autonomous and decentralized subsystems, has been successfully contributing to fulfill adaptive, reliable and expandable properties under changing and transforming environment as consistent concept.The continuous growth of ISADS in size and diversity is reflected by the sponsoring society, the Computer Society of the Institute of Electrical and Electric Engineers (IEEE) together with the cooperating societies including the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP), the International Federation of Automatic Control (IFAC), the Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers (IEICE), Japan and Object Management Group (OMG), as well as the strong supporting organization of Universidad Panamericana, Mexico.I hope that you will find the program stimulating and that you will take the opportunity to meet with your colleagues from around the world to engage in social as well as technical discussions.In addition, technical sessions and workshops on the hot topics of technologies and their advanced applications are jointly arranged.The success of the symposium depends on the dedication and contributions of many volunteers, committee members, authors, reviewers, speakers, workshop chairs, session chairs and supporting personnel, and the strong organizations.I would like to thank Honorary Chairs, Bojan Cukic and General Chair, Carlos Perez for their direction.
Jan 1, 2023·Proceedings of the ... Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences/Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences
Nickolas Carter, Duane Davis, Cynthia E. Irvine, Peter Pommer
Autonomous multi-vehicle systems are becoming increasingly relevant in military operations and have demonstrated potential applicability in civilian environments as well. A problem emerges, however, when logging data within these systems. In particular, potential loss of individual vehicles and inherently lossy and noisy communications environments can result in the loss of important mission data. This paper describes a novel distributed ledger protocol that can be used to ensure that the data in such a system survives and documents verification of the behavioral correctness of this protocol using informal verification methods and tools provided by the Monterey Phoenix project.
In the span of just six years, the once-nascent concept of the decentralized autonomous organization (DAO) has grown into a rich tapestry of fluid organizations and token-powered communities.1 Today, DAO governance is considered to be a new universal primitive for value generation and capture across digital markets and industries. The thinking is that, in all instances in which value is generated by networks of prosumers and consumers, a DAO model has the potential to reallocate value capture to the network.
[ES] A lo largo de la historia, la manera de intercambiar valores ha ido cambiando de forma, pero la realidad es que a pesar de vivir en la era de Internet, del coche eléctrico y de los viajes al espacio, seguimos utilizando la tarjeta de crédito (lanzada como tal en 1958) que es incluso anterior a la creación de Internet (1983), como uno de los métodos de pago más habituales. Con la invención de Bitcoin (2008) se crea el primer dinero de la era post internet, que se centra en solucionar algunos de los problemas que presentan tanto las transacciones como el dinero que utilizamos actualmente. No obstante, surgen nuevos inconvenientes, especialmente a la hora de utilizar Bitcoin para realizar pagos en comercios, especialmente en comercios físicos. En este proyecto hemos tratado de analizar estos inconvenientes de Bitcoin, y nos hemos centrado en abordar soluciones que permitan la escalabilidad y en como la todavía en fase de desarrollo Lightning Network, puede resolver este problema, además de aportar ventajas adicionales. Para mostrar la parte más práctica del trabajo, se ha implementado, por un lado, un nodo en la red Lightning mediante el uso de una Raspberry Pi (junto con el software Raspiblitz) y, por otro lado, un nodo en la nube (Microsoft Azure), con el objetivo de llevar a cabo algunas transacciones entre ambos nodos mostrando así al lector su eficacia y funcionamiento.
G V Sudharmendra, Bhuvenashwer Swaroop, L M Gokul, B Vineetha · 5 authors
Decentralized applications have evolved in the recent past. Many sectors have shown focus towards the Decentralized applications. This paper extends the application to the education sector. The work is associated with the creation of a Decentralized Application on the Ethereum Blockchain, which includes the decentralized way of storing data such as the student details. Face detection feature has been incorporated to tackle the problem of proxy attendance and other malpractices. The Decentralized Application interacts with the smart contract written on the Ethereum network. The smart contract created involves in storing the details of the student’s education timeline, such as his/ her marks, institution information, etc. Cloud technology has been used to store large files which cannot be stored in the smart contracts. Many natural calamities and other causes have led to the destruction of the stored details in the traditional databases, these problems have been overcome with this use of Cloud technology, where it provides features like replicability to avoid loses, reliability to avoid failures, scalability to avoid shortage of resources, etc. Authentication has been addressed with the help of face recognition tool which detects the identity of a person. This attempt of solving the above problems have been stated in this paper. Addition of a security layer with face recognition, storage of media files in the AWS S3 cloud, and interaction with the Decentralized Application, makes this paper unique from the other papers.
Mehrdad Kiamari, Bhaskar Krishnamachari, Muhammad Naveed, Seokgu Yun
We present Blizzard, a Byzantine fault tolerant (BFT) distributed ledger protocol that is aimed at making mobile devices first-class citizens in the consensus process. Blizzard introduces a novel two-tier architecture by having the mobile nodes communicate through online brokers, and includes a decentralized matching scheme to ensure each node connects to a certain number of random brokers. Through mathematical analysis, we derive a guaranteed safety region (i.e., the set of ratios of malicious nodes and malicious brokers for which the safety is assured) for the Blizzard protocol. Liveness is shown as well. We analyze the performance of Blizzard in terms of its throughput, latency, and message complexity. Through experiments based on a software implementation, we show that Blizzard is capable of throughput on the order of several thousand transactions per second per shard and sub-second confirmation latency.
Chrysoula Stathakopoulou, Tudor David, Matej Pavlovič, Marko Vukolić
This paper presents Mir-BFT, a robust Byzantine fault-tolerant (BFT) total order broadcast protocol aimed at maxi-mizing throughput on wide-area networks (WANs), targetingdeployments in decentralized networks, such as permissionedand Proof-of-Stake permissionless blockchain systems. Mir-BFT is the first BFT protocol that allows multiple lead-ers to propose request batches independently (i.e., parallelleaders), while effectively precluding performance degrada-tion due to request duplication by rotating the assignmentof a partitioned request hash space to leaders. As this mech-anism removes the single-leader bandwidth bottleneck andexposes a computation bottleneck related to authenticatingclients even on a WAN, our protocol further boosts through-put using a client signature verification sharding optimization.Our evaluation shows that Mir-BFT outperforms state-of-the-art single-leader protocols and orders more than 60000 signedBitcoin-sized (500-byte) transactions per second on a widelydistributed setup (100 nodes, 1 Gbps WAN) with typical la-tencies of few seconds. Moreover, our evaluation exposesthe impact of duplicate requests on parallel leader protocolswhich Mir-BFT eliminates. We also evaluate Mir-BFT un-der different crash and Byzantine faults, demonstrating itsperformance robustness. Mir-BFT relies on classical BFT protocol constructs, whichsimplifies reasoning about its correctness. Specifically, Mir-BFT is a generalization of the celebrated and scrutinizedPBFT protocol. In a nutshell, Mir-BFT follows PBFT “safety-wise”, with changes needed to accommodate novel featuresrestricted to PBFT liveness.
The subject of the study. The effective functioning of decentralized autonomous organizations<br> (DAOs) is associated with moving from the digital level to the real level in order to find or provide<br> information and communicate with the real environment. Obtaining or transmitting necessary<br> information about certain real–world facts, or information from other digital databases that cannot<br> interact directly with the DAO, is provided through oracles as intermediaries between decentralized<br> databases and real–world events.<br> Results of work. In this article, we consider the oracle as a tool for collecting information for DAO,<br> able to ensure transition of information from the unstable and unsecured physical world in the digital<br> environment of blockchain technology, where information acquires new characteristics and values.<br> Oracle, as a tool with a function of information delivery, combines the functions of finding the necessary<br> information with the functions of ensuring the authenticity and encryption of data in the required format.<br> Conclusions. This article gives a general understanding of the concept of the oracle, and its<br> significance for the work of DAO, as well as development of digital projects built using blockchain<br> technology. Classification of oracles for work with DAO is also given together with characteristics of<br> their possible role for organization of data supply. In addition, the possibility of building a DAO with oracle<br> functions to perform non–standard tasks for the transportation and adaptation of information for<br> various purposes in a blockchain environment is considered. The article also presents main problems<br> that may arise in interactions of oracles with DAO, and suggests possible solutions.
Joachim Neu, Srivatsan Sridhar, Lei Yang, David Tse · 5 authors
Satoshi Nakamoto's Proof-of-Work (PoW) longest chain (LC) protocol was a breakthrough for Internet-scale open-participation consensus. Many Proof-of-Stake (PoS) variants of Nakamoto's protocol such as Ouroboros or Snow White aim to preserve the advantages of LC by mimicking PoW LC closely, while mitigating downsides of PoW by using PoS for Sybil resistance. Previous works have proven these PoS LC protocols secure assuming all network messages are delivered within a bounded delay. However, this assumption is not compatible with PoS when considering bandwidth constraints in the underlying communication network. This is because PoS enables the adversary to reuse block production opportunities and spam the network with equivocating blocks, which is impossible in PoW. The bandwidth constraint necessitates that nodes choose carefully which blocks to spend their limited download budget on. We show that 'download along the longest header chain', a natural download rule for PoW LC, emulated by PoS variants, is insecure for PoS LC. Instead, we propose 'download towards the freshest block' and prove that PoS LC with this download rule is secure in bandwidth constrained networks. Our result can be viewed as a first step towards the co-design of consensus and network layer protocols.
Oct 13, 2021·Proceedings of the Satellite Division's International Technical Meeting (Online)/Proceedings of the Satellite Division's International Technical Meeting (CD-ROM)
RTK technology is now expanding from the traditional geo-spatial communities (such as, surveying applications, construction machine and precision farming) to automotive markets, and is becoming the key and essential component for autonomous driving. Traditionally, RTK corrections, normally in RTCM standard format, are generated from a centralized server using a complicated GNSS algorithm (for example, VRS (Virtual Reference Station) or MAC (Master Auxiliary Correction)) and the raw GNSS measurements from a set of GNSS reference stations (normally in the order of tens to hundreds). Due to the computational and network connection limitations, such systems (for example, Trimble’s VRSNet, Leica’s SpiderNET and Topcon’s TopNET) to provide RTK services, can only handle hundreds’ GNSS reference stations and thousands of user connections for RTK corrections. Also due to the complexity of algorithms to generate the corrections and operating a GNSS network, nowadays, RTK correction services are only locked by government institutions and large private companies. Or you need to setup a base station by yourself, which requires a lot of professional experience, thus it doesn't scale, and not applicable sometimes. The rapid development of autonomous driving market requires a large scale (national-wide or global) RTK network correction service, for example, Qianxun SI is spending huge efforts to build a nationalwide RTK correction service in China, especially design for autonomous driving market in China. This paper describe a new network model---PAS(Precision as Service). PAS employs a blockchain secured by a Proof-of-Stake and Proof-of-Accuracy (POA) hybrid as the consensus model. Proof-of-Stake(POS) is a consensus protocol widely used in recent blockchain projects. In our setup, service provider miners (validator, v-node) need to stake tokens to participate in system consensus. Each node will have its chance to produce blocks based on the BLS algorithm weighted by the staked token. We use the BLS algorithm for fast and reliable BFT-like (Byzantine Fault Tolerant) consensus. Multiple parties use threshold signature to reach an agreement on a blockchain proposal. The staking will also improve economic security by punishing any misbehaving validators. Anyone who owns a PAS token can bond (or delegate) their coins and become a validator, making the validator set open and permissionless. Similar to POW, POA requires external resource consumption to add entropy to the system. This external resource is in the form of physical geospatial coordinates. It is unique, computationally inexpensive, yet fully decentralized available to a large group of people. With very affordable RTK hardware, each base station miner can provide accurate RTK location streaming data with their unique geospatial coordinates. Service provider miners collect those streaming data, verifying the data's accuracy relative to their physical position, creating proof of accurate geographic span in a cryptographically secure way. POS and POA's combination is to create a fast, scalable, and secure blockchain for various applications on top of it. BLS signature By using a curve pair, BLS signature can be used to verify that the point pairs on the two (or the same) curves conform to the multiplicative commutative law: e(P, Q) ? n e(x×P, Q) = e(P, x×Q). The threshold signature (threshold sig) is essentially the signature method of m-of-n. Under the condition that m signatures are known, a unique and valid signature can be synthesized. The combination of any m signature fragments is the same verifiable signature. If fewer than m fragments are shared on the network, no individual will know the full signature. So even with many parties, the BLS signature size could be as small as the size of one signature. That will improve the efficiency of data storage of blockchain-based systems. Also, the BLS signature could be viewed as a robust random seed, as any party can not guess the combined signature, yet it can be verified quickly by everyone. Token economics Token will play an essential role inside the PAS platform. The native token in the PAS platform is called PCS. PCS's primary functions are in staking, payment method for all applications or services in the PAS platform. PCS tokens will also be used to pay transaction fees and the reward for miners and validators. Reward Types Reward Users of PCS stake tokens to subsidize operating and capital expenditures. A reward can happen in two ways. A. Stakers can stake tokens to active Service Provider Miner. Each staked token will be rewarded proportionally according to the set inflation ratio. B. Base Station Miner can uniquely bind to a Service Provider Miner. Once bound, Base Station Miner will stream accuracy RTK data to Service Provider Miner. Service Provider Miner will validate the data and use the combined geospatial RTK coverage map inside the block proposal for additional token reward, besides the staked token reward. In return, Service Provider Miner will distribute mining rewards back to Base Station Miners. Additionally, Service Provider can provide accurate location service to end customer such as surveyor, autonomous vehicle, drone, etc. Service Providers can market their service to an intended user group and create a service payment plan. Service Provider's revenue can be split among Base Station Miner in a preset distribution contract, in the form of a smart contract in PAS Network, or even an off-chain contract. Limits on Number of Validators At the PAS Network's initial stage, the number of validators will be limited to a certain number (e.g., 64). The number of validators will increase gradually as the PAS Network coverage increases. The selection of validators will be based on the balanced consideration of staked token and RTK map coverage area associated with that validator. Staked token RTK data stream Services Provider Staking reward Data reward Base station miner Staker Reward System A Service Provider Miner commits to provide services for at least time t and intends to earn service income r based on staked token T. The minimal number of Base Station Miners is about 10,000. To ensure robust service with enough system redundancy, the ideal number of base station miners could be 3x. Base Station Miners' density may vary from area to area, as the demand for RTK service may change dramatically.