The integration of blockchain with Information-Centric Networking (ICN) enhances content distribution efficiency in areas such as the Internet of Things (IoT) and 5G/6G communications. This integration implies that the network state information of ICN can significantly impact consensus efficiency. However, the Ethereum Casper FFG consensus algorithm overlooks the network heterogeneity among consensus nodes, leading to a potential bottleneck in consensus efficiency, especially when nodes with inferior network quality participate. To address this issue, this paper proposes a multidimensional reputation model based on an ICN-enabled blockchain architecture. The model combines on-chain stake and network contributions to evaluate the reputation of ICN consensus nodes. Furthermore, a reputation-based hybrid consensus mechanism, RepuICN, is introduced, which enhances the network layer of the Casper FFG algorithm. This mechanism selects higher-reputation ICN consensus nodes as proposers for checkpoint blocks, mitigating the impact of network latency fluctuations on block propagation. Additionally, RepuICN improves block propagation efficiency through ICN multicast and caching techniques. Simulation results show that, under identical conditions with a network of 5000 nodes and 2% ICN nodes, RepuICN reduces broadcast latency by 17% for regular blocks and 61.4% for checkpoint blocks and achieves 3.4 times higher transaction throughput than Casper FFG.
In recent years, sharding technology has been frequently applied in blockchain systems to increase scalability. However, when new shards are added, the system may result in significant overhead in terms of computing and networking since the data allocation approach is incompatible with dynamic changes in shards. Currently, S-Store, the state-of-the-art sharding solution built on the account model, has a high re-computing latency when growing shard numbers and an unbalanced sharded data distribution after growth. To address these issues, this paper presents Tangram, an efficient and balanced dynamic storage extension approach for sharding blockchain systems. Tangram reduces system extension overhead and latency while ensuring a balanced shard distribution. In implementing Tangram, we tackle three main technical challenges as follows. (1) Designing a novel state tree structure for the storage and maintenance of sharding state data. We introduce the Jump Merkle Tree (JMT) based on the Merkle Tree, which integrates node migration and orderliness. (2) Presenting a protocol to be compatible with dynamic shard scenarios. We devise a shard addition protocol to improve system extension availability and decrease shard extension delay. (3) Proposing an approach to guarantee system longevity after extension. We first devise algorithms for the state tree to eradicate invalid states after system expansion. Furthermore, we introduce a shard reduction protocol to enhance system storage extension support in complex scenarios, such as cleaning up inactive states to avoid bloating the state tree. We conduct extensive experiments to evaluate the performance of Tangram. Experiment results demonstrate that Tangram outperforms existing solutions, showing reduced latency and superior data balance. When compared to the state-of-the-art sharding storage solution, Tangram decreases the transaction execute time by up to 87.84%, the state data migration by more than approximately 74%, and achieves up to 7.63x improvement in the standard deviation of sharding data balance.
Krishna Nivash. J Krishna Nivash. J, Dr. V. Vijayakumar Dr. V. Vijayakumar
Blockchain Based Cross Network calling is an innovative decentralized peer-to-peer (P2P) communication system leveraging WebRTC and blockchain technology. This paper explores the system architecture, scalability mechanisms, and potential future enhancements. We present an in-depth analysis of its hybrid decentralized architecture, discuss the scalability challenges in P2P networks, and propose future enhancements including Layer-2 blockchain solutions, decentralized signaling, and AI integration. The findings suggest that decentralized audio communication can be significantly improved through advanced architectural designs and optimized scalability solutions. This paper provides a comprehensive exploration of Cross Network-based decentralized communication, emphasizing its implications for privacy, security, and future enhancements in Web3 applications.
Research on Bitcoin (BTC) transactions is a matter of interest for both economic and network science fields. Although this cryptocurrency is based on a decentralized system, making transaction details freely accessible, making raw blockchain data analyzable is not straightforward due to the Bitcoin protocol specificity and data richness. To address the need for an accessible dataset, we present ORBITAAL, the first comprehensive dataset based on temporal graph formalism. The dataset covers all Bitcoin transactions from January 2009 to January 2021. ORBITAAL provides temporal graph representations of entity-entity transaction networks, snapshots, and stream graph. Each transaction value is given in Bitcoin and US dollar regarding daily-based conversion rate. This dataset also provides details on entities such as their global BTC balance and associated public addresses.
Feng Chen, Chunjiang Zhao, Xinting Yang, Na Luo · 5 authors
Agri-food safety issues have received widespread attention globally. The emergence of blockchain technology (BCT) effectively addresses trust issues in the agri-food supply chain traceability system (AFSCTS). However, the append-only feature of blockchain has led to continuous linear data growth in BCT-based AFSCTSs, which increases the equipment requirements and has become a bottleneck for BCT-based AFSCTS applications. The storage capacity required by BCT-based AFSCTSs can be effectively reduced by deleting expired data, thereby reducing the storage pressure on blockchain devices and lowering the device requirements. In this paper, we propose an AFSCTS architecture that incorporates redactable blockchain and InterPlanetary file system (IPFS) technologies to achieve traceability with low storage pressure, using the wheat supply chain as a proof of concept. Firstly, the key links were analyzed in agri-food traceability and the demand was proposed for agri-food blockchain traceability based on the timeliness of traceability data. Secondly, a lightweight accountable parallel blockchain architecture called LAP-chain is proposed. This architecture utilizes redactable blockchain technology to offload expired agri-food traceability data to IPFS, thereby reducing the storage pressure on blockchain devices and ensuring data accountability through IPFS. Finally, we evaluate the correctness, collision resistance, and storage performance of the LAP-chain built on the Ethereum private chain. The results show that when expired agri-food traceability data are permanently retained, the storage capacity of the proposed architecture is only 52.38% of that of the traditional blockchain traceability architecture, after running continuously for 36 months. When traceability data of expired agri-food are deleted in accordance with the food laws and regulations of various countries, the storage capacity of the proposed architecture can be reduced from a linear level to a constant level compared to the traditional blockchain traceability architecture. The proposed architecture has the potential to contribute to improving the safety and quality of agri-food.
Web3 is the next-generation internet, utilizing blockchain technology to power decentralized applications and give users greater control. However, the scalability limitations of blockchain create performance bottlenecks that hinder Web3’s overall processing capabilities. Among current scalability solutions, multi-chain architecture has been considered a promising approach with high flexibility. However, current multi-chain architecture lacks portability to existing blockchains and relies on relayers to solve timing issues in the interoperability process. The lack of portability makes it challenging for existing blockchains to adopt the current multi-chain architecture, significantly impeding multi-chain promotion. Moreover, relying on relayers to address timing issues leads to low efficiency and potential reliability risks. This paper introduces Zunesha, a multi-chain architecture that designs a smart-contractbased multi-chain toolkit (STACK) to provide a portable multi-chain architecture. Additionally, it introduces the Dynasty-Based Consensus Node Set Verification (DB-CNSV) protocol as a foundational safety mechanism to eliminate relayers in the interoperability process and address timing issues. Our evaluation shows that Zunesha significantly enhances the overall performance of the blockchain. As the number of subchains increases, the throughput grows almost linearly. Furthermore, the performance of inter-chain transactions surpasses that of the current mainstream multi-chain architecture, Cosmos.
Damilare Peter Oyinloye, Je Sen Teh, Mohd Najwadi Yusoff
Blockchain technology has been adopted in various sectors including health, energy and agriculture. It functions as a distributed ledger maintained by multiple nodes, relying on consensus protocols to verify transactions and reach agreement. However, conventional protocols like Proof of Work (PoW) and Proof of Stake (PoS) face challenges with scalability and energy efficiency. This paper introduces Proof of Collaborative Contribution (PoCC), a new consensus protocol aimed at encouraging positive network contributions and fostering collaboration. It utilizes a simplified hashing mechanism secured by trusted execution environments (TEEs). As a proof of concept, PoCC is applied to a solar energy generation system, where prosumers are incentivized to offset their energy consumption and feed excess energy back into the grid. Using real-world energy data from AusGrid, our simulations demonstrate that PoCC ensures equitable block leader selection. We also show that PoCC scales well with the number of nodes, consumes significantly less energy than PoW, and is resistant to Sybil and 51% attacks. We also briefly explore other potential applications of PoCC in systems that aim to reward node contributions.
Lukas Smirek, Jens Griesing, Tobias Höpfer, Daniel Stetter
Advances in electric vehicles and charging infrastructure technology have given the electrification of road traffic a positive momentum. Nowadays, it is becoming more and more evident that the related energy and financial processes of the current e-mobility ecosystem are reaching their limits. This leads to usability losses for end users as well as administrative and non-causation-based financial burdens on various energy system participants. In this article, use cases are inferred from the literature, the aforementioned challenges are discussed in more detail, and strategies for addressing them are presented. Furthermore, the information system architecture of the BANULA project, with its core elements of open communication standards, virtual balancing areas, and blockchain components, is explained. BANULA addresses the aforementioned challenges by holistically considering the needs of all participants. A special focus of the project is implementing and investigating the concept of virtual balancing areas. This concept has been available since 2020 but has not been implemented in the market yet. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, BANULA is the first project that utilizes current legislation to transfer charging infrastructure to virtual balancing areas in conjunction with distributed ledger technology to support related processes. In the first step, the BANULA implementation prototype targets the German e-mobility ecosystem, but applicability to other states in the European Union is planned. Using an independent framework, the BANULA architecture and its prototypical implementation are evaluated. The authors show that the unique combination of virtual balancing areas and the related processes, enhanced through distributed ledger technology, has the potential to contribute to a user-centered, trustworthy, and grid-supportive e-mobility ecosystem.
Blockchain sharding is a scalable solution for distributed ledgers, but may be hindered due to cross-shard transactions and uneven workload distribution. This paper presents EquiFlowShard, an advanced blockchain sharding protocol designed to improve robustness and enhance cross-shard efficiency. Specifically, by employing Optimized Account State Distribution Algorithm (OSADA), EquiFlowShard dynamically assigns and segments account states, so as to minimize cross-shard transaction volume and balance shard workloads. In addition, the protocol introduces the SFlow mechanism to facilitate secure and consistent state transfers and a Smooth Transition scheme to mitigate performance impacts during state reconfigurations. Evaluation results confirm that EquiFlowShard outperforms existing benchmark protocols in terms of throughput, transaction confirmation latency, and cross-shard transaction ratio, demonstrating its effectiveness in dynamic blockchain environments.
This paper explores the rethinking of blockchain architecture for the Internet of Things (IoT) to improve data security, integrity, and processing efficiency. An API gateway collects, prepares, and sends data to blockchain nodes for verification when integrating IoT devices with a blockchain network. Accuracy is ensured by updating the distributed ledger with verified data. Within the blockchain, smart contracts automate actions in response to IoT data situations, carrying out tasks automatically and recording results. Large or supplemental data is stored off-chain to preserve efficiency and scalability, while basic transactional data is kept in the distributed ledger. Direct connection between blockchain nodes via a peer-to-peer (P2P) network promotes fault tolerance, consensus, and data consistency. This architecture utilizes the secure and immutable properties of blockchain technology to address common IoT challenges, offering a robust solution for contemporary IoT applications.
The InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) offers decentralized storage and data sharing, which are critical for the functionality of Blockchain of Things (BCoT) systems. Despite its advantages, IPFS faces challenges such as scalability, latency, and resource management issues that hinder its effective integration into existing blockchain infrastructures. This study explores the implementation of Docker containerization to enhance IPFS performance within BCoT environments. An experimental testbed was established, comprising an IPFS node and an IPFS Cluster peer deployed as Docker containers, to evaluate the latency of file operations across various sizes and analyze containerization’s impact on data storage and retrieval efficiency. The proposed Dockerized IPFS implementation demonstrates substantial performance improvements over traditional systems, achieving latency reductions of up to 75% for small files (1–256 KB) and a three-fold decrease for larger files (64 MB). Specifically, write operations were reduced from 1000 ms to 300 ms, while read operations improved by 40%, decreasing from 2500 ms to 1500 ms. Additionally, the containerized approach yielded lower latency than previous standalone IPFS deployments. The study emphasizes the significance of dynamic resource allocation in optimizing resource utilization, thereby enhancing the overall performance of IPFS Clusters within BCoT frameworks. By leveraging Dockerized IPFS, BCoT systems can achieve more efficient off-chain storage solutions, facilitating improved data management and interoperability in decentralized applications.
T. T. Lei, Qinnan Zhang, Wangjie Qiu, Hongwei Zheng · 9 authors
Consensus mechanisms are fundamental to maintaining consistency in distributed systems. With the advent of Web 3.0, blockchain has revealed limitations of traditional Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS) consensus mechanisms. To address these issues, we propose a novel Quadratic Voting-based DPoS (Q-DPoS) consensus mechanism. Our approach integrates Quadratic Voting into DPoS to optimize voting power distribution, vote counting, and reward settlement processes, thereby incentivizing participation from users with lower stakes while reducing the concentration of influence. To prevent the system from reverting to a linear reward structure under Sybil Attacks, we introduce admission rules and vote similarity detection mechanisms to strengthen its robustness. Simulation results demonstrate that Q-DPoS significantly increases voter participation and alleviates stake centralization, thereby enhancing overall decentralization. Additionally, theoretical analysis grounded in game theory confirms that the proposed mechanism effectively diversifies voting preferences, contributing to a more balanced and resilient consensus mechanism suitable for Web 3.0 ecosystem.
Lingxiao Yang, Xuewen Dong, Zhiguo Wan, Di Lu · 6 authors
As the foundation of the Web3 trust system, blockchain technology faces increasing demands for scalability. Sharding emerges as a promising solution, but it struggles to handle highly concurrent cross-shard transactions (\textsf{CSTx}s), primarily due to simultaneous ledger operations on the same account. Hyperledger Fabric, a permissioned blockchain, employs multi-version concurrency control for parallel processing. Existing solutions use channels and intermediaries to achieve cross-sharding in Hyperledger Fabric. However, the conflict problem caused by highly concurrent \textsf{CSTx}s has not been adequately resolved. To fill this gap, we propose HiCoCS, a high concurrency cross-shard scheme for permissioned blockchains. HiCoCS creates a unique virtual sub-broker for each \textsf{CSTx} by introducing a composite key structure, enabling conflict-free concurrent transaction processing while reducing resource overhead. The challenge lies in managing large numbers of composite keys and mitigating intermediary privacy risks. HiCoCS utilizes virtual sub-brokers to receive and process \textsf{CSTx}s concurrently while maintaining a transaction pool. Batch processing is employed to merge multiple \textsf{CSTx}s in the pool, improving efficiency. We explore composite key reuse to reduce the number of virtual sub-brokers and lower system overhead. Privacy preservation is enhanced using homomorphic encryption. Evaluations show that HiCoCS improves cross-shard transaction throughput by 3.5-20.2 times compared to the baselines.
Yidan Lai, Yang Liu, Haoxiang Luo, Gang Sun · 8 authors
Blockchain, a groundbreaking technology known for its distributed ledger system, records digital transactions and information in a decentralized manner. Broadcast protocols, fundamental components of computer networks, play a crucial role in disseminating information effectively. Blockchain networks often exhibit lower throughput rates compared to centralized payment systems due to the intricate node verification process during data propagation. Improving blockchain performance requires mitigating transaction and block propagation delays within network dissemination processes. This study delves into the development and significance of blockchain broadcast protocols, exploring their applications within blockchain networks. We introduce various broadcast protocols designed to optimize performance metrics such as energy efficiency, fault tolerance, and consistency. A comprehensive analysis, including detailed comparisons through tables, sheds light on the strengths and weaknesses of these protocols. Lastly, we address potential future challenges and directions for the evolution of broadcast protocols in the blockchain ecosystem.
Mahmood K. Pathan, J. Rameshkumar, Chintalapudi V. Suresh
The decentralized operation of the power system, which is built entirely on the consensus notion, is one of the most important contemporary subjects in the energy industry. Without the need for a “neutral arbiter, all significant market participants can come to an understanding. Peer-to-peer (P2P) architecture, interface communication, and network security are all discussed in this paper as they pertain to the decentralized nature of the energy market and the paper’s proposed solution: a P2P-based platform. For this reason, it is critical to protect the market player’s communication interfaces from harmful assaults. In this case, a new blockchain platform coinciding with the P2P energy market ensures that the necessary consensus may be reached safely. An efficient algorithm based on the Relaxed Consensus-Innovation (RCI) protocol controls the energy market, with the goal of facilitating power/price trading between participants in a decentralized, peer-to-peer (P2P) setting. Market participants in the proposed model include a microgrid and a smart grid, both of which are assumed to act in their own self-interest while negotiating with one another in a safe setting. Microgrids use wind turbines, solar panels, tidal turbines, and battery storage units, whereas the smart grid uses distributed generators (DGs) and transmission lines modelled after the IEEE 24-bus test system. In the peer-to-peer energy market, a stochastic framework that is based on unscented transform (UT) has been developed to deal with the uncertainty effects caused by the circumstance. For gauging and validating the fault-tolerant system’s resistance to cyber-attack, we model and apply the fault data injection attack (FDIA) on the blockchain-based P2P energy market”. Simulation results validate the paper’s ideas.
Haotian Wu, Yuzhe Tang, Zhaoyan Shen, Jun Tao · 6 authors
Blockchain has become a popular paradigm for secure and immutable data storage. Despite its numerous applications across various fields, concerns regarding the user privacy and result integrity during data queries persist. Additionally, the need for rich query functionalities to harness the full potential of blockchain data remains an area ripe for exploration. In order to address these challenges, our paper first utilizes a framework based on the Trusted Execution Environment (TEE) and oblivious RAM technique to achieve both privacy and data integrity. To enhance the query efficiency over the entire blockchain, we then devise a two-level learned indexing methodology named TELEX within the TEE for both integer and string keys. We also propose different query processing algorithms for versatile query types, including exact queries, aggregate queries, Boolean queries, and range queries. By implementing the prototype and conducting extensive evaluation, we demonstrate the feasibility and remarkable improvement in efficiency compared to existing solutions.
This thesis presents novel techniques to improve the efficiency, scalability, and security of Data Confidence Fabrics (DCFs), a framework that ensures data authenticity and integrity in large scale, heterogeneous distributed systems by generating metadata at each point of data formation, processing, and transmission. Despite their strengths, DCFs face significant challenges, including excessive annotation and transactional overhead, which reduce scalability and efficiency, and metadata privacy risks, which compromise sensitive network information. To address these challenges, this research proposes methods that improve system scalability, enable efficient annotation retrieval, and protect sensitive network information, with a focus on the Alvarium Data Confidence Fabric, though the solutions are broadly applicable to other DCFs. A primary contribution of this work is addressing the efficiency and scalability challenges by reducing annotation overhead through compact annotation techniques, particularly annotation batching. By aggregating multiple annotations into a single ledger transaction, this approach minimizes redundancy, storage costs and ledger interactions. However, batching introduces complexity in retrieving individual annotations. To overcome this, two retrieval methods are proposed: Batch Keys, which use mapping tables to quickly locate individual annotations based on a Batch key, and Bloom Filters, which provide a low-overhead approach for efficiently verifying the presence of annotations. Another major focus of this work is mitigating metadata privacy risks, where adversaries could analyze annotations to infer network structures. To obscure network patterns, two privacy-preserving schemes, Hostname Mapping and Hostname Encryption, are introduced, with Hostname Encryption offering a more efficient and secure alternative. Additionally, the research highlights how timestamp metadata can be exploited to reconstruct network structures through clustering techniques. To mitigate this vulnerability, a timestamp obfuscation solution is proposed, introducing controlled randomness to disrupt predictable timing patterns and protect network confidentiality. In summary, the thesis introduces and evaluates methods that significantly enhance the efficiency, scalability, and security of DCFs. These contributions strengthen the practical deployment of DCFs in cloud-edge environments and provide a foundation for future research in secure and trustworthy data management across distributed systems.
Javier José Díaz Rivera, Ricard Vilalta, Raül Muñoz, Pol Alemany · 5 authors
In multi-domain network environments, each domain operates with its own Software-Defined Networking (SDN) controller, making it challenging to ensure secure and consistent topology management across domains. Traditional centralized logging systems fall short in providing the transparency, flexibility, and decentralized trust needed for effective collaboration between controllers. Distributed Ledger Technologies (DLT) offer a decentralized and immutable way to log network operations, presenting a promising solution for multi-domain SDN environments. This paper presents an approach that uses blockchain to record topology management operations such as adding, updating, and deleting devices and links across multiple SDN domains. The framework leverages permissioned blockchains to establish decentralized trust, with SDN controllers acting as validator nodes to validate and commit transactions upon reaching consensus. An Adaptive Batch Mechanism (ABM) is introduced to optimize block formation by dynamically adjusting batch parameters and using dummy transactions to maintain efficiency during low and varying transaction loads. Experimental validation using Hyperledger Fabric demonstrates the system’s ability to enhance decentralized logging, reduce delays in transaction processing, and facilitate inter-domain coordination while maintaining robust security through a distributed trust model.
Alexander A. Hernandez, Sook Yee Yip, Kam Meng Goh, Arlene R. Caballero · 5 authors
Standalone energy supply system has been in the limelight, especially in rural areas since it can provide cheap electrical supply to the local communities. Energy supply is always a problematic condition in many developing countries that significantly affects progress and inclusive economic development. Furthermore, excess energy generated is wasted due to insufficient battery storage. To confront these recurring problems, peer-to-peer energy resource sharing has emerged as a promising solution, offering a decentralized system and approach to reduce reliance on the grid energy resource. The system enables prosumers to share excess energy with consumers, reducing dependence on grid and lowering the cost of electricity. However, peer-to-peer energy resource sharing is still a relatively new technology in developing countries, especially in rural communities, needing enabling technologies, support, and sustainable policies and financing models. To this end, this study aims to provide comprehensive understanding of the state of the art of peer-to-peer energy resource sharing in rural communities.