The subject of the study is the main theoretical approaches to understanding the nature and functional role of smart contracts developed in the Russian civil doctrine. The object of the study is public relations in the field of using smart contracts as a means of regulating the turnover of copyright objects. The author raises the actual problem of using smart contracts in the field of copyright protection. The relevance of the issue is due to the widespread technological innovations in the field of intellectual property turnover, which requires the state to develop new solutions in the field of legal policy. The use of smart contracts is a promising technological solution that can ensure the effectiveness of protecting the interests of copyright subjects. Special attention is paid to certain aspects of the operation of smart contracts (their modification, termination) within the framework of the turnover of rights to copyright objects. The research methodology involves the use of structural and functional analysis tools, a method of interpreting legal ideas and a systematic approach, on the basis of which the article attempts to identify the functional significance of smart contracts as a technological and legal phenomenon in the sphere of turnover of copyright objects. The use of smart contracts is an innovative approach that contributes to the improvement of document management in Russian copyright law. The main conclusions of the author are the statement of the limited nature of the use of smart contracts in the framework of copyright protection of the results of intellectual activity. The author's contribution to the disclosure of the research topic is determined by the identification of differences between smart contracts and classical means of regulating contractual relations. Based on the conducted research, the author suggests ways to improve the legislative policy of the state, related to the lack of an orderly system of civil law norms governing relations in the field of smart contracts as tools for ensuring the registration of copyright objects and the fulfillment of private law obligations. The author substantiates the need to develop the provisions of civil legislation in terms of expanding legal structures capable of ensuring the fulfillment of agreements reached between the parties to a private law relationship.
This article examines the legal qualification of smart contracts within civil law jurisdictions, emphasizing the challenges posed by automated, code-based agreements in systems traditionally grounded in codified statutes and doctrinal principles. By exploring current scholarly debates, legislative approaches, and judicial interpretations, this study highlights the tension between the self-executing nature of smart contracts and the requirement for consent, formality, and interpretation under civil codes. Drawing on a qualitative analysis of doctrinal writings, statutory frameworks, and case-based discussions, the paper identifies core issues of enforceability, liability, and consumer protection. Results reveal the need for a more coherent integration of legal theory and technological design, underscoring the role of hybrid solutions that blend human interpretation with automated execution. The discussion situates these findings in the broader trajectory of contract law modernization, concluding with recommendations for policymakers and practitioners regarding risk mitigation, technological design improvements, and harmonized regulatory standards.
This comprehensive study examines the integration of smart contracts into civil law systems and analyzes the associated regulatory challenges. The research investigates the fundamental nature of smart contracts as technological tools and legal instruments, their compatibility with existing civil law frameworks, and the emerging regulatory approaches across different jurisdictions. Through systematic analysis of legislative developments, case law, and scholarly discourse, this study identifies key legal issues including contract formation, performance, enforcement, and dispute resolution in the context of smart contracts. The findings reveal significant gaps in current regulatory frameworks and propose solutions for harmonizing smart contract implementation with established civil law principles. This research contributes to the ongoing academic discourse on legal technology integration and provides practical recommendations for legislators, legal practitioners, and technology developers.
The article examines promising directions for improving access to justice in criminal cassation proceedings using modern digital technologies. It is stated that digitalization in this area should expand the possibilities of realization of the right to judicial protection and not create additional procedural barriers or restrictions on ac-cess to justice. The author proposes a system of main directions for digital transformation of cassation pro-ceedings, including creating a mechanism for digital interaction between participants, forming a procedure for remote implementation of procedural rights through personalized electronic access, implementing distributed ledger technology, and developing electronic identification procedures for participants. The necessity of main-taining procedural guarantees while implementing digital innovations is substantiated. Specific amendments to criminal procedure legislation are proposed to implement these directions.
Smart contracts, closely intertwined with cryptocurrency transactions, have sparked widespread concerns about considerable financial losses of security issues. To counteract this, a variety of tools have been developed to identify vulnerability in smart contract. However, they fail to overcome two challenges at the same time when faced with smart contract bytecode: (i) strong interference caused by enormous non-relevant instructions; (ii) missing semantics of bytecode due to incomplete data and control flow dependencies. In this paper, we propose a multi-teacher based bytecode vulnerability detection method, namely Multi-Teacher Vulnerability Hunter (MTVHunter), which delivers effective denoising and missing semantic to bytecode under multi-teacher guidance. Specifically, we first propose an instruction denoising teacher to eliminate noise interference by abstract vulnerability pattern and further reflect in contract embeddings. Secondly, we design a novel semantic complementary teacher with neuron distillation, which effectively extracts necessary semantic from source code to replenish the bytecode. Particularly, the proposed neuron distillation accelerate this semantic filling by turning the knowledge transition into a regression task. We conduct experiments on 229,178 real-world smart contracts that concerns four types of common vulnerabilities. Extensive experiments show MTVHunter achieves significantly performance gains over state-of-the-art approaches.
The urgency of this research is to increase efficiency, transparency and sustainability in increasingly complex and challenging agribusiness supply chains. The aim of this research is to develop an integrated system that combines IoT capabilities in collecting agricultural data in real-time, AI to analyze data and provide recommendations for action, as well as security and transparency guaranteed by blockchain technology. The method used is a mixed methods approach, this approach combines qualitative and quantitative elements to obtain a deeper understanding. A qualitative approach is used to gain a contextual perspective, while a quantitative approach is used to measure performance empirically. This research uses a case study design on a sensor-based agricultural monitoring system because of its ability to provide in-depth and holistic insights. The research population consists of users and stakeholders in sensor-based agricultural monitoring systems. The sample was selected purposively to cover various aspects of the supply chain. Data was collected through in-depth interviews, direct observation, surveys of system users and collection of sensor and transaction data from agricultural monitoring systems. The research results show that the integration of IoT, AI, and blockchain significantly improves operational efficiency in agribusiness supply chains. Implementation of this integrated system resulted in an increase in productivity of up to 22%, a reduction in pesticide use by 35%, an increase in water use efficiency by 30%, and a reduction in operational costs by 18%. Statistical analysis confirmed a strong positive correlation between the use of integrated technology and increased operational efficiency (R=0.85, p<0.01).
Трансформација од економије која је била заснована на радно интензивним инвестицијама, до економије засноване на знању и иновацијама, створила је конкурентније друштво. Међутим, трансформација економије и друштва није могућа без развијене интелектуалне својине. Неопходно је да право интелектуалне својине прати развој технологије, а то је веома тежак задатак. Данас аутори и носиоци ауторског и сродних права све више користе тзв. незаменљиве токене (non-fungible-tokens) као власничке сертификате за виртуелну имовину,у циљу уновчавања својих духовних творевина. Незаменљиви токен се зове тако јер је јединствен, односно, не постоје два иста токена. NFT је најлакше схватити као дигитални „водени жиг“ који може непобитно да утврди аутентичност дигиталне датотеке – слике, видео клипа, аудио датотеке, криптовалуте. Заправо, било која компјутерски генерисана датотека може бити потписана NFT токеном. С обзиром да се Закон о дигиталној имовини примењује у Србији од 2021. године, неопходне су и измене правила интелектуалне својине, којима ће се регулисати однос између три категорије лица, аутора оригиналног дела (онај који поседује права интелектуалне својине над делом), аутора NFT(оног који је минирао токен) и власника NFT-а (онај који је купио токен). Дигитална својина је годинама актуелна тема у Србији, а сва је прилика да ће постати још значајнија сада када је усвојен правни оквир који настоји да омогући њену даљу примену и развој.
The evolution of online dispute resolution (ODR) within the platform economy has fundamentally transformed the landscape of commerce and dispute resolution in the digital era. This chapter delves into the intricate dynamics of ODR mechanisms in China tailored to address transaction-related disputes as well as IP disputes. Highlighting the trajectory of ODR innovation and the convergence of multi-stakeholder interests, this chapter underscores the pivotal role of ODR in enhancing transparency through crowdsourced judgment, expedited resolution efficacy, user trust, platform loyalty, and dispute prevention. By examining the driving forces propelling ODR development – including economic efficiency, the alleviation of judicial burden, the alignment with diversified dispute resolution (DDR), and the advocacy of IP protection – this chapter elucidates the multifaceted implications and nuances of ODR implementation. It also probes into the challenges and outlines prospective advancements, paving the way for continuous ODR refinement amidst the evolving platform economy context throughout the globe. The implications of these findings, such as the emphasis of user participation and the balance of multi-stakeholder interests, extend to the evolving web3 ecosystem, emphasizing the significance of well-designed ODR mechanisms in mitigating disputes and fostering sustainability of the web3 economy. Moreover, this chapter elaborates on how ODR in China sets an influential precedent, reflecting the collaborative and innovative approach in shaping regulations, advancing IP protection, and fostering co-regulation within the digital economy globally.
The internet has undergone significant transformations over the past three decades, progressing from the early ‘read-only’ Web1 to the interactive ‘read-and-write’ Web2, and is now entering the era of Web3 marked by decentralisation, user-centricity, and transparency. In Web3, users transition from passive consumers to active participants, contributors, and owners of the digital landscape. Essentially, in this Web3 space, participants enjoy greater autonomy to create their own ‘society’ and engage in transactions.
The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into smart contracts holds the potential to both enhance and exacerbate consumer protection challenges. Since the AI system embedded within the contract’s code enables a high degree of contractual personalisation – by tailoring the legal agreement to the unique characteristics of the targeted individual consumer, thanks to its capacity to process large amounts of personal and behavioural data in real time – it opens the door not only to scenarios of AI-powered consumer manipulation, but also to the promising opportunity of a consumer-centric AI. Such an AI would serve the consumer’s best interests by adapting the contract to their specific needs and preferences, while protecting them from – rather than exploiting – their information, cognitive, and digital vulnerabilities. This research aims to assess whether the EU legal framework – particularly the UCPD, UCTD, AI Act, GDPR, and DSA – adequately ensures that these technologies are designed and deployed with the consumer’s well-being at their core. The paper explores AI-related risks such as digital manipulation, personal data exploitation, and the black-box problem inherent in algorithmic opacity, while also addressing the liability challenge in cases of consumer harm. Ultimately, it seeks to answer whether AI-driven smart contracts can truly foster a high level of consumer protection in the AI era, by offering novel interpretations of the existing legal framework and advancing proposals for reform aligned with the fairness-by-design approach and informed by behavioural science insights.
U ovome radu analiziraju se modeli oporezivanja kriptovaluta u Republici Hrvatskoj te se uspoređuju s praksom u odabranim zemljama, a to su: Australija, Slovenija, Sjedinjene Američke Državei Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo. Hrvatska još uvijek nema poseban zakon o kriptovalutama, već se oporezivanje provodi prema postojećim poreznim propisima, pri čemu se kriptovalute tretiraju kao financijska imovina. Kroz komparativnu analizu u radu se identificiraju prednosti i nedostaci hrvatskog modela s posebnim naglaskom na porezno izuzeće za dugoročne investicije i izuzeće za zamjenu kriptovaluta, ali i na pravnu nesigurnost zbog nedostatka jasnih smjernica. Radom se zaključuje donošenje posebnog zakonodavstva i usklađivanje s europskim regulatornim standardima ključno za osiguranje pravne sigurnosti, učinkovitosti i konkurentnosti hrvatskog poreznog sustava za kriptovalute.
The digitization of healthcare information has expanded access to medical data while raising concerns about its security, authenticity, and trustworthiness. This paper explores the role of digital certificates in addressing these challenges, focusing on their potential to verify the credibility of health information and protect sensitive data. It begins with a theoretical overview, emphasizing the importance of certificates in ensuring data authenticity and integrity, particularly in compliance with regulations such as the GDPR.The analysis examines current certificate models like HONcode and PIF TICK, highlighting their limitations in public awareness and practical application. Innovative technologies such as blockchain and zero-knowledge proofs are identified as promising tools for enhancing the security and traceability of health information. Blockchain’s immutability and decentralized verification capabilities, combined with patient-controlled data access via smart contracts, underscore its potential in fostering trust and compliance with privacy standards.The paper outlines essential certification requirements, including technical efficiency through machine learning, content accuracy based on scientific validation, and process transparency. Furthermore, user-centric approaches are emphasized to enhance certificate accessibility and public trust. The study also examines parallels in other industries, such as food and finance, which employ rigorous certification systems for safety and reliability.Ultimately, this research advocates for a hybrid certification model combining automated and expert-driven processes. By leveraging modern technologies and interdisciplinary practices, such a model can address the dual goals of ensuring high-quality health information and fostering user trust in the digital healthcare landscape.
Modern financial technologies (Financial Technologies, FinTech) have improved traditional finance, while concurrently building a fundamentally new financial alternative. The application of FinTech has created digital financial products that are legally regulated but many crypto products still remain outside the law. The cryptocurrency market is a digital decentralized system that operates according to its own rules that users voluntarily accept, using personalized digital transactions. The application of FinTech in banking is a legal activity of banks aimed at strengthening competitive advantages in providing financial services, whereas central banks may require from commercial banks to upgrade or improve part of their digital technologies. In contrast, Blockchain technology has created a digital financial alternative which allows individuals to directly manage their digital wallets via phones and computers, without centralized control and outside of banking systems, by using the Internet and sharing original digital records among networked users worldwide. In the initial period, Blockchain technology generated resistance and was ignored by state regulatory bodies. The process of legal regulation of digital products and markets which were created on the basis of Blockchain and other digital technologies began after several years of actual Blockchain technology application. The subject matter of analysis in this paper is the legal regulation of already developed and widely used digital markets and assets, with specific reference to the legal solutions in the USA, the EU, and Serbia. The challenges of legal regulation of digital assets are numerous, ranging from insufficient knowledge of digital technologies to the unfeasibility of norming the decentralized digital segments. Thus, it is essential for the creators of law and the persons who apply the law to have the basic knowledge of modern digital technologies.
Abstract The Internet has significantly transformed society, fostering technological literacy and reshaping business transactions through advancements like blockchain and distributed ledger technologies (DLT). Traditional business concepts are evolving as users increasingly engage with digital identities and smart contracts. This introductory chapter outlines the legal frameworks for emerging digital assets, identities, and the Internet of Value, with a focus on the European context, particularly Spain. Despite the rise of Big Tech, which centralises data, there are persistent trends towards decentralisation, exemplified by peer-to-peer networks and blockchain. These developments raise concerns about the monopolisation of digital infrastructure and the potential need for a “new social contract” regarding digital identity and ownership. Regulatory frameworks must adapt to address the unique legal and security challenges posed by cryptocurrencies and digital assets. As Europe navigates this transformation, initiatives like the Markets in Crypto-assets Regulation (MiCA) and the Digital Euro Package aim to create coherent legal structures. This work emphasises the importance of securing trust in the digital economy while considering the implications of emerging technologies and the evolving landscape of digital finance.
Blockchain technology is reshaping a wide range of sectors, from finance and law to art. The rise of blockchain platforms offering "blockchain arbitration" suggests a shift toward faster, cheaper and decentralized dispute resolution. A key advantage often highlighted is the potential for automatic enforcement of decisions using smart contracts. However, since this is only a possibility, many decisions will be enforced through traditional means. Given the inherently global nature of blockchain arbitration disputes, an important consideration is whether their decisions can be recognized and enforced under the New York Convention. This paper explores whether blockchain arbitration decisions qualify as awards enforceable under the New York Convention and whether their decision-making process meets the Convention's enforcement criteria. The author recognizes that the procedural aspect of public policy may be undermined by the way decisions are rendered in blockchain arbitrations.
Leandro Loffi, Gerson Luiz Camillo, Cristiano Antonio de Souza, Carla Merkle Westphall · 5 authors
Digital evidence plays an increasingly crucial role in judicial proceedings due to the exponential growth in the creation, storage, and transmission of digital data. However, its inherent volatility and susceptibility to tampering necessitate robust mechanisms to ensure integrity and authenticity, making an effective chain of custody (CoC) a fundamental requirement. While state-of-the-art reviews identify various aspects, it is necessary to include the use of Self-Sovereign Identity (SSI) systems within the scope of research. To address this challenge, this article conducts a systematic review of the literature on the use of blockchain and SSI in managing the chain of custody of digital evidence. The review began with 9,178 studies, which, after a rigorous process applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, resulted in 39 studies directly related to the research topic. The study maps and reviews techniques, tools, methods, approaches, and security components for managing the chain of custody of digital evidence. The findings confirm the widespread adoption of blockchain for preserving digital evidence while indicating that SSI remains an emerging and underexplored concept in forensic applications. The results highlight the need for further research on off-chain storage mechanisms, privacy-preserving techniques such as Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs) to enhance security, auditability, and interoperability when combined with Verifiable Credentials (VCs). By mapping the current state of research, this study provides valuable insights into CoC, Blockchain, and SSI in forensic-based proposals, identifying research gaps, limitations, and opportunities for developing more robust and scalable evidence management systems.
The paper delves into the impact of non-fungible tokens on trademark in the fashion industry. NFTs are digital assets that offer evidence of ownership and authenticity and are stored in blockchain technology. In the emerging scenario, fashion brands are using NFTs to offer new opportunities to attract consumer attention, thereby enhancing marketing techniques in the digital space. New techniques have been introduced by NFTs to deal with fashion brands leveraging blockchain technology and providing an effective marketplace. Nonetheless, NFTs are also posing danger to trademark infringement, counterfeiting goods, and brand identity in the digital space. The lack of specific legislation regulating NFTs throughout the world has caused challenges for trademark laws and the fashion industry to safeguard their intellectual property.The research in this field suggests that even though there are limitations in the ever-growing sphere of NFTs, there are immense opportunities as well if regulated well. The paper analyses the prospects of the blockchain technology in securing fashion brands in the digital space. The paper also delves into ethical dilemma including artistic attribution and provides valuable insights for law students, professionals, and policymakers to explore the emerging field of digital ownership and trademark protection. Ultimately, the paper provides recommendations for better incorporation of effective legislation on NFTs in the Indian marketplace.
Frontier AI systems, including large-scale machine learning models and autonomous decision-making technologies, are deployed across critical sectors such as finance, healthcare, and national security. These present new cyber-risks, including adversarial exploitation, data integrity threats, and legal ambiguities in accountability. The absence of a unified regulatory framework has led to inconsistencies in oversight, creating vulnerabilities that can be exploited at scale. By integrating perspectives from cybersecurity, legal studies, and computational risk assessment, this research evaluates regulatory strategies for addressing AI-specific threats, such as model inversion attacks, data poisoning, and adversarial manipulations that undermine system reliability. The methodology involves a comparative analysis of domestic and international AI policies, assessing their effectiveness in managing emerging threats. Additionally, the study explores the role of cryptographic techniques, such as homomorphic encryption and zero-knowledge proofs, in enhancing compliance, protecting sensitive data, and ensuring algorithmic accountability. Findings indicate that current regulatory efforts are fragmented and reactive, lacking the necessary provisions to address the evolving risks associated with frontier AI. The study advocates for a structured regulatory framework that integrates security-first governance models, proactive compliance mechanisms, and coordinated global oversight to mitigate AI-driven threats. The investigation considers that we do not live in a world where most countries seem to be wishing to follow European Union ideals, and in the wake of this particular trend, this research presents a regulatory blueprint that balances technological advancement with decentralised security enforcement.
Open access
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Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education
This research seeks to analyze the newer trends that have emerged in the area of smart contracts and, in particular, the areas of their documentation and application, along with the growing convergence with artificially intelligent techniques. Smart contracts are also known as self-executing digital contracts managed electronically via the blockchain systems. Such contracts have provided unparalleled security and transparency in commercial and legal transactions. It is interesting to understand how to document these participant contracts, tendered as distributed digital files. This research analyzes the strengths and weaknesses in the expression of intent in the smart contracts. It also suggests solutions to enhance such a process. The study reviews the challenges to the implementation of the aforementioned within the scope of the traditional legal system. The research also deals with the impact of artificial intelligence on enhancing the efficiency of the use of smart contracts. It provides recommendations on the amendments to the law that facilitate the utilization of smart contracts and their integration with artificial intelligence, ensuring compliance with legal frameworks and safeguarding the rights of contracting parties through the establishment of legislation to govern and document these contracts. The drafting of smart contracts is considered a challenge and an opportunity for improving the efficiency and reliability of contracting operations in the digital era.