Blockchain Papers

Lené Tourn

No abstract is available for this record.

Md Monjurul Karim, Qiang Qu, Yaoyi Cai, Teddy Liu · 5 authors

The unprecedented rise of Bitcoin has marked a significant milestone in the evolution of decentralized finance (DeFi). Despite Bitcoin's groundbreaking contributions, it faces inherent challenges due to its reliance on the Unspent Transaction Output (UTXO) model, which limits its capabilities in executing complex transactions and embedding diverse data types. To overcome these limitations, Ordinals and Inscriptions have been introduced, allowing extensive data and information embedding within Bitcoin transactions. Building upon these advancements, the recent development of the BRC-20 standard leverages these capabilities to introduce fungible tokens on the Bitcoin network. However, these innovations have yet to be fully integrated into the broader blockchain and DeFi ecosystems, and they still face challenges related to interoperability, scalability, and user perception. In this paper, we explore the intricacies of Ordinal, Inscription, and BRC protocols to address these challenges by analyzing their functionalities, operational methodologies, and potential applications. We offer a detailed examination of the challenges and future prospects, shedding light on the unexplored potential of these technologies in transforming Bitcoin transactions and expanding its role in the DeFi space. By thoroughly analyzing these new developments, we aim to bridge the gap in current academic research and offer valuable insights for developers, investors, and enthusiasts. This paper serves as a foundation for future innovations, paving the way for more robust, scalable, and user-friendly applications in the DeFi and Web3 landscape.

N. Alamelu Mangai

Blockchain technology is emerging as a transformative force in the banking industry, offering decentralized, secure, and transparent solutions for financial transactions and operations. By eliminating intermediaries and enabling real-time data sharing across distributed ledgers, blockchain enhances efficiency in processes such as cross-border payments, smart contracts, KYC, and fraud prevention. Major banks and financial institutions are increasingly adopting blockchain to reduce costs and improve trust. However, challenges such as scalability, data privacy, lack of standardization, and integration with legacy systems hinder its full-scale deployment. Furthermore, global regulatory uncertainties and varying compliance requirements pose additional barriers. As regulators and central banks explore frameworks like Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs) and regulatory sandboxes, a balanced approach is essential to foster innovation while ensuring security and consumer protection. This paper analyzes the key opportunities, challenges, and evolving regulatory landscape of blockchain in banking, highlighting its potential to reshape the financial ecosystem

Ejiroghene Amanda Onohwakpo, Ugochi Linda Onyeanuforo

This study examined cryptocurrency adoption patterns across developing economies using comprehensive data from 2018-2021. Through analysis of 45 developing countries, we identify key determinants of crypto adoption including financial inclusion gaps, currency stability, regulatory frameworks, and technological infrastructure. Our findings revealed that countries with higher inflation rates, lower banking penetration, and more favourable regulatory environments demonstrate significantly higher cryptocurrency adoption rates. The study contributes to understanding digital finance evolution in emerging markets and provides policy implications for fostering inclusive financial systems.

Thành Khôi Lê, Thai Le, Hai Anh Tran

A university registration system needs transparency, high security, and high integrity of the data to prevent fraudulent actions on registration. Blockchain technology is a technology focused on the secure, transparent, and integrity of the data. This technology is suitable for the requirements of a registration system. This study proposes a method for integrating the blockchain into the registration system by using the smart contract to design the storage of data on the blockchain, and the functions with the logic process for the actions related to registration. This paper will discuss the architecture design, implementation, and testing to show the potential of applied blockchain in the registration system.

Eid Alotaibi, Jumi Kim, Dan Palmon

ABSTRACT This paper proposes a solution for the issue of silent shareholders lacking influence over company decisions and not receiving adequate compensation. Thus, we adopt Palmon, Kleinman, and Medinets’s (2022) “capital contract” framework and extend it by integrating smart contract functionality. This study then introduces a prototype to demonstrate how this enhanced framework can be implemented through blockchain-based smart contracts. By linking silent shareholders’ dividends to executive compensation, these smart contracts enhance the trustworthiness and transparency of the compensation processes for executives and shareholders. What is more, blockchain-based smart contracts automate the contract terms, potentially reducing the need for intermediaries to monitor managerial actions. Also, smart contracts are flexible to meet diverse reporting requirements and adapt to the unique characteristics of a particular company. Data Availability: All data used in this study are available in the manuscript. JEL Classifications: M40; O33.

Ronald Ravinesh Kumar, Hossein Ghanbari, Peter Josef Stauvermann

The market for digital assets, and more specifically cryptocurrencies, is growing, although their adoption in small island countries remains absent. This paper explores the potential benefits of integrating cryptocurrencies into portfolios alongside stocks, with a focus on Fiji’s stock market. This is the first study on a small market like Fiji, which emphasizes the role of cryptocurrencies in portfolio management. We analyze the outcomes (returns and risks) of combining cryptocurrencies with stocks using 12 different techniques. We use monthly stock returns data of 18 companies listed on the South Pacific Stock Exchange from Aug-2019 to Jun-2025 (71 months) and nine cryptocurrencies from Sept-2019 to Jun-2025 (70 months). Our main analysis shows that only one cryptocurrency, albeit with a small exposure, consistently appears in the stock-cryptocurrency portfolios in the 12 methods. Using the return-to-risk ratio across methods as a guide, we find that the stocks-cryptocurrencies portfolio based on EQW, MinVar, MaxSharpe, MinSemVar, MaxDiv, MaxDeCorr, MaxRMD, and MaxASR offers better outcomes than the stock-only portfolios. Using high returns as a guide, we find that six out of 12 methods (EQW, MaxSharpe, MaxSort, MaxCEQ, MaxOmega, and MaxUDVol) support the stocks-cryptocurrencies portfolios. Portfolios satisfying both conditions (high return-risk ratio and high return) are supported by the EQW and MaxSharpe portfolios. The consistency of assets in both stock and stock−cryptocurrency portfolios is further confirmed by 24-month out-of-sample forecasts and Monte Carlo simulations, although the latter supports small exposures in two out of the nine cryptocurrencies. Based on the results, we conclude that a small exposure to certain cryptocurrencies can strengthen diversification and improve potential returns.

Rim Ben Fekih, Mariam Lahami, Salma Bradai, Mohamed Jmaïel

No abstract is available for this record.

Reynald Dian Kristiawan, Ridwan Sanjaya, T. Brenda Chandrawati

Crowdfunding is now a significant source of financing in the form of small sums of money from many individuals through internet websites. It is a significant source of backup for raising finance, especially for student research work, because it is a quicker and more convenient way to raise capital. Traditional crowdfunding websites are beset with issues regarding security threats in the form of fund misuse, manipulation, and data intrusion, detracting from trustworthiness and performance. This article recommends the use of blockchain technology as a solution to these issues. Blockchain's immutability, transparency, and decentralization ensure secure transactions and solve data integrity concerns. The principal elements of blockchain, including immutability, transparency, security, and smart contracts, are mentioned, demonstrating their role in enhancing crowdfunding for student research.

Iryna Dashko, Олександр Череп, Любомир Михайліченко

The article comprehensively examines cryptocurrencies as a strategic tool for transforming the investment environment in the context of digitalization of the global economy. The current state of the crypto market is analyzed, key trends in its evolution are identified, and the role of digital assets in the formation of new investment models is characterized. Particular attention is paid to determining the investment potential of cryptocurrencies in the long term, taking into account such advantages as decentralization, market openness, technological innovation and accessibility. The author substantiates the concept of “crypto-horizon” - a new investment paradigm that combines a strategic vision of digital finance development with an understanding of the risks and prospects of cryptocurrencies. The author considers the importance of this concept in the formation of a new type of investor capable of operating in the digital economy, effectively managing risks and using innovative financial instruments. The paper also focuses on the key challenges of the crypto market: high volatility, legal uncertainty, information asymmetry, and limited financial literacy. The SWOT analysis made it possible to identify the strengths and weaknesses of crypto investing, as well as promising areas for the development of digital finance. The importance of state regulation, creation of a regulatory framework, development of digital finance infrastructure and raising public awareness in the field of investment is determined. The author emphasizes the need to form an effective regulatory framework for the integration of cryptocurrencies into the financial system. The role of public policy, educational initiatives, and infrastructure solutions in increasing confidence in digital assets is shown. It is substantiated that successful implementation of the “crypto-horizon” concept is possible only if there is a synergy of technology, regulation and investment culture. As a result, the authors conclude that cryptocurrencies are already playing the role of a digital key to the investment future, and their competent integration into national and international financial systems will be the key to the formation of an innovative, flexible and accessible investment ecosystem for the general population.

Jocelyn Aracelia Kusuma, Meyliana Meyliana, Kevin Deniswara

Innovative solutions are needed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote sustainability in the face of climate change, a global problem. Although carbon markets often face problems such as centralization, lack of transparency, and high costs, they are intended to address these issues. A new way to improve carbon markets is offered by decentralized finance (DeFi) powered by blockchain technologies, such as tokenization and smart contracts. These technologies make carbon credit trading more efficient, transparent, and accessible. In this paper, a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) was used to examine 35 studies published between 2018 and 2024. These results are generated using the Technology-Organization-Environment (TOE) framework, which identifies fifteen critical components that influence the adoption of decentralized finance in carbon markets. Scalability and opaque regulation are issues that need further research, although DeFi may be able to address many of these issues. Additionally, the study highlights the role of decentralized finance in supporting the shift towards a greener economy by promoting sustainability and inclusivity. This study advances the understanding of how decentralized finance can aid carbon reduction efforts and improve the way carbon markets function.

THOMAZ HENRIQUE VIARO BRIDI, Berislav Andrlić, Rodrigo Franco Gonçalves

The concept of Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAOs) has introduced a novel paradigm in organizational governance, characterized by more collaborative decision-making. However, the lack of established organizational frameworks for DAOs presents significant challenges to their constitution, stability, and longevity. Aiming to address this shortcoming, this paper presents a conceptual framework to guide the design of the community governance structure of DAOs. To achieve this aim, we employed two complementary methods: firstly, we conducted a systematic literature review about DAOs and community governance; secondly, we conducted an analysis of the governance methods employed by five DAOs operating in public blockchain ecosystems. The proposed framework provides a valuable tool for DAO founders, developers, and community members to design and implement effective governance structures and contributes to the understanding of DAO governance and further research.

Aihua Li

Although supply chain finance is essential for modern business, it is also prone to fraud, mistakes, and inefficiencies. This paper presents a blockchain-based smart contract audit system to improve supply chain finance’s security, openness, and efficiency. The system uses distributed architecture, smart contracts and blockchain technology to automate and audit financial transactions. In terms of scalability, convergence speed, and accuracy, experimental results reveal quite excellent performance of the proposed system. The proposed method achieved in auditing financial transactions an accuracy of 95.2%. Showing a convergence speed of 41.2 s for 30 nodes, the system confirmed its ability to manage large-scale datasets. With 30 nodes, the system shown scalability proving it could control difficult supply chain financial circumstances. Promising supply chain finance solution the blockchain-based smart contract audit system shown a clear decrease in audit time and cost.

Toshiki Takakubo, Yinfeng Cao, Ruidong Li, Jiannong Cao

Sharding is a key technology for enhancing blockchain scalability by splitting the network into multiple shards, enabling parallel transaction (TX) processing. However, frequent cross-shard TXs can significantly limit the performance of sharding. Existing approaches reduce cross-shard TXs by modeling account relationships as a graph, but these methods only focus on efficiently processing normal transfer TXs between two parties. In practice, most blockchain TXs are generated by smart contracts, which involve multiple parties simultaneously, thus increasing graph complexity and prolonging shard partitioning time. In this paper, we propose UnionChain, a novel sharding protocol that reduces cross-shard TXs while efficiently handling smart contract TXs. Specifically, UnionChain first models the relationship between accounts and smart contracts as a weighted graph. By applying a community detection algorithm to partition this graph, it groups closely related entities into the same shard, thereby reducing cross-shard TXs and supporting efficient smart contract execution. To further address the graph complexity issue, UnionChain introduces an efficient vertex merging mechanism. When TXs occur between smart contracts, the corresponding contract vertices are merged into a single vertex. This mechanism significantly reduces graph size and shortens partitioning time. We implement a UnionChain prototype and evaluate its performance using a real Ethereum TX dataset. Compared to state-of-the-art sharding protocols, UnionChain shortens the partitioning time by up to 27% while maintaining a low cross-shard TX ratio, demonstrating its effectiveness in improving blockchain scalability.

Suzana Maranhão Moreno, Alessandro Aldini, Paul-Antoine Bisgambiglia, Jean-Marc Seigneur

This paper proposes a dynamic, decentralized social trust model to meet Know Your Customer (KYC) and Anti-Money Laundering (AML) compliance requirements, especially for individuals lacking formal documentation. Building on previous work, we present a conceptual model for dynamically computing trust and risk values to support financial transaction approvals through innovative recognition schemes. Agent-based simulations across four scenarios demonstrate that dynamic trust mechanisms enhance transaction approval rates and payment volumes, provided malicious agents are controlled. The model is flexible, adaptable to diverse populations, and promotes financial inclusion without compromising compliance requirements. It also offers a foundation for future research on mitigating risks from malicious actors. Furthermore, it is particularly suited for enabling compliant and inclusive decentralized finance (DeFi) applications.

Chnar Mohammed Kareem, Ahmed Chalak Shakir

Decentralized Finance (DeFi) represents the new generation of blockchain financial services by developing an open-access financial model without banking or lending institution intermediaries. However, DeFi's open feature threatens its security, making it vulnerable and a target for different attack types. In this systematic review, we present the security of DeFi by selecting fifteen studies from 2020 to 2024 to determine and display the security solutions' effectiveness in identifying the attacks, focusing on various DeFi components such as smart contracts, DEX, AMM, governance, AMM-based DEX, and smart contracts with (DEX, Oracle); detecting different kinds of attacks (e.g., price manipulation, Oracle manipulation, flash loan) using detection tools (e.g., DeFort, CRPWarner, FORAY); we find out that 40% of the selected studies focus on Oracle manipulation attack, 33.33% for price manipulation and flash loan attacks separately, followed by 13.33% for (MEV, rug pull, front-running, Token Leakage, and deep logical bugs), 6.67% for (EEV, reentrancy, sandwich, access control, and state derailment defects). We compare the studies based on the attack type that they detected using four state-of-the-art types of research, such as DeFiScope, FlashSyn, SecPLF, and DeFiGuard; this indicates the concentration of the trend studies is on accuracy and combining AI in DeFi security, or aggregating the existing tools with it, giving an overview of DeFi components' security, underlining the gaps in the attack types that future research can address to build more robust, trustworthy, and secure DeFi systems.

Antonio Pierrò

The convergence of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and blockchain technology represents a paradigm shift in the financial industry, promising to unlock unprecedented levels of efficiency, security, and automation. This paper explores the synergistic relationship between AI and blockchain, with a particular focus on their applications within the burgeoning field of Decentralized Finance (DeFi). We analyze the technical integration of these two transformative technologies, examining how AI can enhance blockchain's capabilities and how blockchain can provide a trusted environment for AI-driven processes. The paper investigates a range of applications, including AI-enhanced trading, autonomous financial agents, and cross-border payments, while also addressing the critical challenges related to security, trust, and regulation. By synthesizing insights from a broad range of academic literature, including foundational and recent works, this paper provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of AI-blockchain integration in DeFi and identifies key areas for future research. We argue that the fusion of AI and blockchain is not merely an incremental improvement but a fundamental evolution that will reshape the future of financial markets.

Eyal Briman, Nimrod Talmon, Angela Kreitenweis, Muhammad Idrees

Abstract The Optimism Retroactive Project Funding (RetroPGF) is a key initiative within the blockchain ecosystem that retroactively rewards projects deemed valuable to the Ethereum and Optimism communities. Managed by the Optimism Collective, a decentralized autonomous organization (DAO), RetroPGF represents a large-scale experiment in decentralized governance. Funding rewards are distributed in OP tokens, the native digital currency of the ecosystem. As of this writing, four funding rounds have been completed, collectively allocating over $100M, with an additional $1.3B reserved for future rounds. However, we identify significant shortcomings in the current allocation system, underscoring the need for improved governance mechanisms given the scale of funds involved. Leveraging computational social choice techniques and insights from multiagent systems, we propose improvements to the voting process by recommending the adoption of a utilitarian moving phantoms mechanism [1]. This mechanism was originally introduced by Freeman et al. [1], is designed to enhance social welfare (using the $$\ell _1$$ <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:msub> <mml:mi>ℓ</mml:mi> <mml:mn>1</mml:mn> </mml:msub> </mml:math> norm) while satisfying strategyproofness–two key properties aligned with the application’s governance requirements. Our analysis provides a formal framework for designing improved funding mechanisms for DAOs, contributing to the broader discourse on decentralized governance and public goods allocation.

Paridhi Talwar, Aman Jain, Eugene Pinsky

Dramatic price swings and the possibility of extreme returns have made Bitcoin a hot topic of interest for investors and researchers alike. With the help of advanced neural network models including CNN, RCNN, and LSTM networks, this paper has delved deep into the intricacies of Bitcoin price behavior. We will study different time intervals—close-to-close, close-to-open, open-to-close, and day-to-day—to find a pattern that we can use to develop an investment strategy. The average volatility over a year, six months, and three months is compared with the predictive power of volatility versus a traditional buy-and-hold strategy. Our findings point out the strengths and weaknesses of each neural network model and provide useful insights into optimizing cryptocurrency portfolios. This study contributes to the literature on the price prediction and volatility analysis of cryptocurrencies, thus providing useful information to both researchers and investors to execute strategic steps within the volatile cryptocurrency market.

Siswoyo Aris Munandar, Fahrurrozi Fahrurrozi

Purpose – This study aims to analyze the controversy surrounding cryptocurrency from the perspectives of Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), focusing on their respective fatwas, the underlying juridical argumentation, and the social and economic implications of these religious rulings in Indonesia.Methodology – Employing a qualitative normative legal approach, the research conducts a comprehensive document analysis of official fatwas issued by Muhammadiyah and NU, complemented by secondary sources such as academic articles, news reports, and government regulations related to cryptocurrency in Indonesia.Findings – Both Muhammadiyah and NU consistently declare crypto-currencies haram (forbidden) primarily because of Islamic legal principles prohibiting gharar (excessive uncertainty), maisir (gambling), and the lack of state sanctions and consumer protection. While sharing this conclusion, the two organizations differ in their juridical methodologies, with NU exhibiting more contextual flexibility through internal debates and regional councils. Implications – The fatwas serves as authoritative guidance shaping Muslim consumer choices and government regulations, reinforcing Islamic ethical standards in financial transactions. However, they also create tension between technological innovation and religious compliance, posing challenges to fintech adoption and inclusive economic growth. The findings suggest the need for ongoing dialogue between scholars, regulators, and industry stakeholders to reconcile Sharia compliance with digital financial innovation.Originality – This study provides an original contribution by offering a comparative, in-depth analysis of the legal reasoning within the Muhammadiyah and NU fatwas on cryptocurrency, linking doctrinal argumentation to broader socioeconomic outcomes. It fills a gap in the existing literature that mostly catalogs fatwa content without examining their interpretive nuances and practical impacts in Indonesia’s unique socio-religious context.

Nagendra Harish Jamithireddy

The rise of decentralized finance (DeFi) technologies allows businesses to rethink financial processes centered around traditional centralized systems. However, direct on-chain integration with legacy platforms such as SAP incurs latency, cost, and compliance conflicts that are seldom aligned with the needs of enterprise-scale finance. This research proposes and assesses a hybrid architecture that integrates on-chain smart contract execution with off-chain approval and validation logic to enable secure, scalable, and auditable fintech payment processing within SAP environments. The architecture utilizes SAP FI transaction triggers such as FB60 or F110 to instigate payment workflows which are executed in part by blockchain nodes utilizing secure asynchronous handlers while retaining regulatory bounding and state finality within SAP.A testbed which simulated over 100,000 transactions per hour was set up on Quorum, Hyperledger Besu and Polygon Edge blockchains. The hybrid model was proven to outperform fully on-chain and legacy SAP models in transaction throughput, fault tolerance, and audit traceability by a significant margin. Latencies were also reduced by an average of 47% when compared to full-chain setups. The hybrid model was able to retain audit finality in the ledger and had a 94.8% success rate of settlement under Byzantine fault injections exerts while enduring sustained cross-system fault tolerance. Security layers placed on both chains and off-chain components block 98% of simulated attack vectors in the transaction path. In addition, the attack simulations showed over 37% reduced CPU resource consumption in hybrid mode compared to full-chain validated configurations. The results support the hybrid model's capacity to enable high trust decentralized financial operations within SAP while increasing structural performance, resilience, governance capabilities of the system.

Emmanuel Chidiebere Eze, Ernest Effah Ameyaw

Purpose The purpose of this study is to adopt a quantitative approach to critically examine the effectiveness of measures to promote the adoption and implementation of blockchain-enabled smart contracts (BSCs) in long-term infrastructure public–private partnerships (PPPs) projects within the theoretical lens of the hybrid technology, organisation and environment (TOE) framework and institutional theory. Design/methodology/approach A literature review was undertaken to identify 34 measures for mitigating various barriers to the adoption of blockchain-smart contracts. It was used to design a survey questionnaire guided by the six constructs of the hybrid model. A total of 123 questionnaire data were gathered via purposive and snowball sampling techniques from experts across countries. The data was analysed using mean analysis, coefficient of variation, relative effectiveness index, Spearman correlation analysis and fuzzy set theory. Findings It was found that the measures (strategies) assessed were “very effective” in promoting the broader adoption of BSC in infrastructure PPP projects. Mimetic measures, organisational measures, normative pressure and technological measures were the leading and most critical measures for improving the adoption of smart contracts in PPP. A strong, positive and significant impact was observed between the six constructs of the hybrid model and the adoption of BSC in PPP. Originality/value Studies integrating blockchain in PPP are scanty, and a quantitative study on measures to improve BSC adoption and implementation in infrastructure PPP projects is absent. Furthermore, the combination of TOE framework and institutional theory has yet to be used to explore the adoption of BSC in infrastructure PPP projects. This study pioneers the promotion of strategies for the digitalisation of PPP projects using smart contracts for sustainable infrastructure development.

Benjamin Kraner, Luca Pennella, Nicolò Vallarano, Claudio J. Tessone

We introduce a micro-velocity framework for analysing the on-chain circulation of Lidos liquid-staking tokens, stETH, and its wrapped ERC-20 form, wstETH. By reconstructing full transfer and share-based accounting histories, we compute address-level velocities and decompose them into behavioural components. Despite their growing importance, the micro-level monetary dynamics of LSTs remain largely unexplored. Our data reveal persistently high velocity for both tokens, reflecting intensive reuse within DeFi. Yet activity is highly concentrated: a small cohort of large addresses, likely institutional accounts, are responsible for most turnover, while the rest of the users remain largely passive. We also observe a gradual transition in user behavior, characterized by a shift toward wstETH, the non-rebasing variant of stETH. This shift appears to align with DeFi composability trends, as wstETH is more frequently deployed across protocols such as AAVE, Spark, Balancer, and SkyMoney. To make the study fully reproducible, we release (i) an open-source pipeline that indexes event logs and historical contract state, and (ii) two public datasets containing every Transfer and TransferShares record for stETH and wstETH through 2024-11-08. This is the first large-scale empirical characterisation of liquid-staking token circulation. Our approach offers a scalable template for monitoring staking asset flows and provides new, open-access resources to the research community.

Kenan Kaan Kurt, M.Emin Timurtaş, Sevcan Pınar, Fatih Özaydin · 5 authors

The integration of blockchain technology into healthcare systems has emerged as a technical solution for enhancing data security, protecting privacy, and improving interoperability. Blockchain-based smart contracts offer reliability, transparency, and efficiency in healthcare services, making them a focal point of many studies. However, challenges such as scalability, regulatory compliance, and interoperability continue to limit their widespread adoption. This study conducts a comprehensive literature review to assess blockchain-driven health data management, focusing on the classification of blockchain-based smart contracts in health policy and the health protocols and standards applicable to blockchain-based smart contracts. This review includes 80 core studies published between 2019 and 2025, identified through searches in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science using the PRISMA method. Risk of bias and methodological quality were assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute tool. The findings highlight the potential of blockchain-enabled smart contracts in health policy management, emphasizing their advantages, limitations, and implementation challenges. Additionally, the research underscores their transformative impact on digital health policies in ensuring data integrity, enhancing patient autonomy, and fostering a more resilient healthcare ecosystem. Recent advancements in quantum technologies are also considered as they present both novel opportunities and emerging threats to the future security and design of healthcare blockchain systems.