As the "agentic web" takes shape-billions of AI agents (often LLM-powered) autonomously transacting and collaborating-trust shifts from human oversight to protocol design. In 2025, several inter-agent protocols crystallized this shift, including Google's Agent-to-Agent (A2A), Agent Payments Protocol (AP2), and Ethereum's ERC-8004 "Trustless Agents," yet their underlying trust assumptions remain under-examined. This paper presents a comparative study of trust models in inter-agent protocol design: Brief (self- or third-party verifiable claims), Claim (self-proclaimed capabilities and identity, e.g. AgentCard), Proof (cryptographic verification, including zero-knowledge proofs and trusted execution environment attestations), Stake (bonded collateral with slashing and insurance), Reputation (crowd feedback and graph-based trust signals), and Constraint (sandboxing and capability bounding). For each, we analyze assumptions, attack surfaces, and design trade-offs, with particular emphasis on LLM-specific fragilities-prompt injection, sycophancy/nudge-susceptibility, hallucination, deception, and misalignment-that render purely reputational or claim-only approaches brittle. Our findings indicate no single mechanism suffices. We argue for trustless-by-default architectures anchored in Proof and Stake to gate high-impact actions, augmented by Brief for identity and discovery and Reputation overlays for flexibility and social signals. We comparatively evaluate A2A, AP2, ERC-8004 and related historical variations in academic research under metrics spanning security, privacy, latency/cost, and social robustness (Sybil/collusion/whitewashing resistance). We conclude with hybrid trust model recommendations that mitigate reputation gaming and misinformed LLM behavior, and we distill actionable design guidelines for safer, interoperable, and scalable agent economies.
This paper presents the development of a decentralized blockchain-based gaming platform designed to redefine the user experience in competitive gaming through Web3 technologies. Traditional online games suffer from centralized control, limited asset ownership, and trust issues in competitive environments. In contrast, the proposed solution leverages smart contracts, NFTs, and decentralized architecture to create a transparent, trustless, and rewarding gaming ecosystem. The platform enables users to register, link their crypto wallets, and participate in admin-hosted tournaments of a rock paper-scissors game. Here winners are selected by a dynamic leaderboard system. It automatically rewards NFTs depending on final rankings at the end of each tournament. Admin controls the tournament creation and NFT minting. Players can sell/buy the earned NFTs at an integrated exchange. All major activities of the game like tournament flow, result tracking, NFT ownership are controlled by smart contracts control. Due to the smart contracts control safe transactions takes place without the need for intermediaries, which ensures fairness. The study primarily dedicated to smart contract logic, User interface functionalities and NFT marketplace structure. It also deals all issues related to optimization. Other features of the work are real-time leader board management& secure execution of the game logic. The results of this research demonstrates that blockchain can improve transparency in gaming and its reward systems. It has the capacity to create a new model for competitive decentralized gameplay.
AI's merger with Web3 tech is changing the game leading to open, see-through, and somewhat self-running systems. This research explores the AI-agent paradigm in Web3 considering spread-out networks, blockchain rules, smart deals, and partial self-rule as new concepts. The main focus of this paper is to redefine the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) with Web3 technologies and create a semi-autonomous architecture that transcends decentralized and centralized approaches. While the majority of literature surveys AI agents that function on blockchain and decentralized protocols, our study presents a layered model that exploits off-chain AI inference with on-chain consensus mechanisms, (DID) management, and governance. We explain the main components, such as shared record-keeping, distributed ID management, reward systems, and agreement methods, that allow AI agents to function efficiently in the absence of a central boss. Moreover, the research analyzes significant issues such as scalability, safety, data privacy, and interoperability. It offers a number of improvements in off-chain AI-based agents for decentralized environments. Results demonstrate that hybrid on-chain/off-chain AI clusters can reduce inference costs and increase transaction throughput while preserving decentralization and data privacy. The team-up of AI and Web3 opens doors to new uses like spread-out money systems (DeFi), self-running groups (DAOs), and marketplaces without middlemen creating tough, clear, and user-focused digital worlds.
Jeffson C. Sousa, Bruno Evaristo, Vinicius Duarte, Mauricio Pinto · 6 authors
Blockchain technology has established itself as a decentralized solution capable of ensuring security, transparency, and robust process validation, profoundly transforming various sectors. This work proposes the development of an innovative marketplace for the telecommunications sector, based on blockchain, with the aim of providing a dynamic catalog of telecom services and assets. The platform enables asset and service providers to publish offers for physical resources-such as towers, antennas, and links-within an integrated market. These resources can be hired by third parties under Business-to-Business (B2B) and Business-to-Consumer (B2C) models. The architecture incorporates decentralized identity (DID), smart contracts for asset tokenization and automated billing, and a lightweight frontend. Built on Hyperledger Besu and integrated with Ethereum-compatible libraries, the system fosters digital governance, interoperability, and the sustainable use of underutilized physical assets.
This paper presents a new method for discovering Connected Things in a universal way. The method is designed to be used in all kinds of networks, from the smallest sensor networks to the largest interconnected cloud networks. The method allows different technologies to identify entities in different ways. It allows for full or partial identification. It does not rely on collecting information into central repositories, whether such repositories reside on central nodes, or are mirrored on distributed nodes, such as in a distributed ledger of blockchain type or similar. Instead, the method presented relies on local governance of local information and interoperability between nodes across the Internet for finding entities.
Carlos Melo, Johnnatan Messias, José Miqueias, Glauber Gonçalves · 6 authors
Sidechains offer partial solutions to Ethereum’s scalability challenges; however, they introduce trade-offs related to security and implementation complexity. These limitations have been further addressed by Layer-2 solutions known as rollups, which combine off-chain computation with on-chain verification, preserving both security and decentralization on the Ethereum platform. This paper proposes a Stochastic Petri Net model to evaluate the feasibility of ZK-Rollups by analyzing their impact on throughput and latency. The results indicate that increased adoption of Layer-2 transactions can enhance system throughput by up to 20%. Conversely, latency may rise by more than 100% when larger batches are used, revealing a fundamental performance trade-off.
Aniket P. Kakde, Karan M. Bhoyar, Muhammad Aiman Shad, Prof. Sudesh A. Bachwani
Autonomous agents powered by Large Language Models (LLMs) require reliable and standardized frameworks to connect tools, exchange contextual information, and synchronize tasks across diverse systems. Despite growing interest in such agents, current integration with external tools remains disjointed. Developers often have to manually create interfaces, handle authentication protocols, and navigate incompatible function-calling standards across platforms. To overcome these limitations and promote the evolution of agentic AI, it is critical to establish standardized communication protocols that ensure interoperability—enabling agents and systems to seamlessly discover each other’s capabilities, share data, and coordinate operations. This paper explores a structured overview of emerging communication standards for agents, focusing on the Model Context Protocol (MCP), Agent Communication Protocol (ACP), Agent-to-Agent Protocol (A2A), and Agent Network Protocol (ANP). MCP utilizes a JSON-RPC based client-server architecture to enable secure execution of tools and well-typed data transfer. ACP introduces a REST-compliant message structure with support for asynchronous streaming and multipart formats, facilitating rich, multimodal agent outputs.A2A enables agents to delegate tasks peer-to-peer using capability-rich Agent Cards, enabling scalable and distributed workflows across organizations. ANP facilitates agent discovery and secure collaboration in open networks, leveraging decentralized identifiers (DIDs) and semantic graphs based on JSON-LD.
The growth of freelancing exposed several drawbacks in the platforms that are now in use, including high service costs, fraud risks, and late payments [1]. A well-designed system architecture is necessary to develop a freelance platform to guarantee scalability, security, and effectiveness. A modular architecture was chosen to give the required flexibility, scalability, and ease of maintenance to overcome these issues. This paper presents the design of a microservices-based architecture for a crypto freelance exchange platform, which uses Domain-Driven Design principles [2]. The architecture is built to support decentralized transactions, smart contract integration, and secure user authentication. It also ensures high availability and fault tolerance. The system uses a multi-layered architecture incorporating PostgreSQL, MongoDB, Redis, and Web3.js. The main components are a web application, KrakenD API Gateway, auth microservice, files microservice, and main microservice for managing transactions, orders, and payments. They are designed to meet critical non-functional requirements such as scalability, security, and maintainability. Each service can be independently deployed, updated, and scaled according to transaction volumes. With an emphasis on security, the platform uses JWT token techniques and multi-factor authentication to authenticate users. Also, the integration of blockchain technology enhances transparency, enabling freelancers and clients to have a trusted record of all transactions and reducing the risk of fraud. The architecture is visualized through UML and C4 model diagrams showing component interactions and service orchestration. This paper also discusses the rationale behind the chosen technologies, security mechanisms, and the benefits of using a modular microservices approach for building a crypto freelance platform.
This dissertation investigates how tokenised claims and algorithmic governance reshape interactions in Web3, with a particular focus on business-to-business (B2B) settings. Building on the insight that digital platforms and infrastructures are mutually entangled—platforms acquiring infrastructural roles and infrastructures accumulating platform logics—the study examines how this entanglement reappears in blockchain-based systems and what it means for value creation, value distribution, and institutional control. Rather than assuming decentralization as an outcome, the dissertation asks how governance is actually assembled across code, organizations, and markets, and how these assemblies channel rights, risks, and rents over time. In this sense, the thesis extends platform/infrastructure scholarship into the Web3 domain, showing how infrastructuring and platformization remain co-constitutive under new technical conditions (e.g., programmable settlement, public ledgers, composability). The research is guided by the following question: How does algorithmic governance of tokenised claims affect dynamics of value creation and distribution in Web3? The thesis addresses a gap in extant work by analysing the combined economic and governance consequences of tokenisation in commercial contexts, rather than treating governance as either purely technical (smart contracts) or purely institutional (foundations, standards, regulators). Methodologically, this research adopts a qualitative, interpretive design centred on semi-structured interviews with founders and leads of Web3 projects oriented toward commercialization and enterprise use. Interview evidence is triangulated with document analysis (white papers, governance docs, upgrade logs) to trace how decision rights are allocated, which boundary resources act as chokepoints, and how incentives and accountability are engineered. The sample focuses on projects that tokenise rights and obligations to orchestrate inter-firm exchanges (e.g., guarantees, attribution, royalties), enabling a consistent comparison of governance choices and their distributional signatures. Theoretically, the thesis contributes a layered view of Web3 governance that differentiates transaction governance (smart-contract rules that execute exchanges) from platform governance (meta-rules that structure participation, evolution, and control)—layers that are interdependent yet analytically distinct. Across cases, transaction governance supplies deterministic settlement (escrows, splits, auctions), while platform governance defines constitutional levers (eligibility schemas, listings, parameter updates, treasury policy, emergency powers). This distinction clarifies why “more on-chain” does not automatically imply “more decentralised”: instruments can be automated while decision rights remain concentrated. The framing resonates with and extends platform governance scholarship that locates governance in the ongoing division of decision rights, control mechanisms, and incentives among interdependent actors. Empirically, the thesis identifies three governance models—monocentric, moderately polycentric (P2), and highly polycentric (P1)—and analyses how each allocates rights and rents. Monocentric configurations recentre constitutional authority in a focal hub (firm, foundation, tightly bonded coalition), delivering speed, legal legibility, and coherent risk management, while concentrating surplus upstream via control of boundary resources (standards, registries, upgrade cadence, listings). Moderately polycentric arrangements disperse constitutional authority across overlapping venues (token voters, stewards, committees, standards groups), pairing automated execution at the edge with contestable meta-rules and auditable, replaceable discretion. Highly polycentric designs thin the platform layer and push coordination into markets and minimal, auditable rules (fee markets, open listings, plural oracles), improving neutrality and exit but requiring continuous work to diffuse emergent chokepoints (indices, bridges, relays). The patterns observed align with infrastructure/platform research on how control points shape innovation and value capture and with blockchain governance work emphasizing the allocation of decision and control rights. For B2B contexts, the analysis suggests a pragmatic equilibrium. Applications that demand auditability, finality, and accountable remediation (e.g., elections, trade guarantees) gravitate toward monocentric settlements; applications with heterogeneous actors and rapid iteration (e.g., creator and talent markets) benefit from moderately polycentric designs that preserve micro-level determinism with macro-level contestability. Across models, tokenisation expands what can be coordinated, but distributional outcomes hinge on who controls admission, measurement, and upgrade pathways. Accordingly, the thesis proposes design heuristics: separate transaction and platform governance, publish change logs and revocation paths, pluralise attestors at measurement junctions, time-box mandates, and keep credible exit technically and institutionally real. In sum, the dissertation advances an integrated account of Web3 as a political economy of programmable claims and layered governance. It shows how infrastructuring and platformization fold into one another under blockchain conditions, how distinct governance models redistribute rights and rents, and how B2B value propositions depend as much on constitutional design as on code. The framework equips scholars and practitioners to evaluate Web3 systems not by decentralisation rhetoric, but by the concrete allocation of decision rights, boundary resources, and incentives across layers and venues.
This paper studies the aspects of Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) related to deciding how to order incoming ledger data records under the requirement to provide transparency and security in public information systems, particularly in the context of e-government. The study addresses the challenges of synchronizing ledger replicas across distributed systems, ensuring consistency and reliability in data storage and retrieval. The research highlights the importance of maintaining a unified ledger state, which is crucial for decisionmaking processes in the public and social sectors. The proposed solution combines Lamport's clock algorithm with wave algorithms to overcome the limitations of traditional timestamping methods, such as the duplication of timestamps for concurrent events. This approach ensures that each event in the distributed ledger is uniquely identified, thereby enhancing the system's robustness and efficiency.
Ovaj rad predstavlja razvoj prototipa decentralizirane društvene mreže temeljene na tehnologijama Web3. S obzirom na sve veće nepovjerenje korisnika prema tradicionalnim, centraliziranim društvenim mrežama, cilj je izraditi rješenje koje korisnicima omogućuje privatnost, sigurnost i vlasništvo nad vlastitim podacima. Aplikacija koristi blockchain Ethereum za upravljanje identitetom i interakcijama korisnika i Metamask za autentikaciju. Sadržaj se pohranjuje distribuirano putem sustava IPFS i mreže istorazinskih dionika Gun. Implementirane su funkcionalnosti poput objavljivanja sadržaja, spremanje objava, označavanje objava sa "sviđa mi se", komentiranja, slanja zahtjeva za prijateljstvo i drugih interakcija. Uz sve navedeno, aplikacija uključuje izravni (peer-to-peer) chat, te sustav za nagrađivanje korisnika putem ERC-20 tokena za aktivnosti, interakciju i kvalitetan sadržaj. Sustav je implementiran lokalno pomoću IPFS i GUN čvorova na dva uređaja. Postavljen je temelj za daljnju optimizaciju i širenje funkcionalnosti, kako bi se ostvarila stvarna, sigurna i decentralizirana mreža.
Ovaj rad prikazuje dizajn i implementaciju decentralizirane aplikacije za kvizove koja spaja prednosti blockchain tehnologije s praktičnošću Web2 tehnologija. Koristeći hibridnu arhitekturu on-chain i off-chain obrade podataka. Korišteni su Angular, Ethers.js, MetaMask na frontendu, Node.js/Express i MongoDB na backendu te Solidity pametni ugovori na ethereum virtual machine (EVM)-kompatibilnoj mreži (Polygon Amoy za testiranje). Arhitektura uključuje QuizFactory za kreiranje ins- tanci, osnovni Quiz za besplatne sesije i proširivi QuizWithFee koncept za nagradni fond. Testiranjem je utvrđena funkcionalnost sustava, ali i ukazan je linearni porast troškova s porastom broja igrača i pitanja. Rezultat je na kraju funkcionalna apli- kacija za live kvizeve u kojem sudionici nemaju on-chain troškove, ključni ishodi su javno provjerljivi na blockchain-u, a visoko-frekventne interakcije ostaju izvan lanca radi boljeg korisničkog iskustva i nižih troškova; sustav je modula
Security protection of dynamically generated log files requires immediate prevention against alteration, reliability, and compliance of current systems. The research creates a novel framework that integrates blockchain technology with cryptographic hashing methods to establish resistant and immutable log authentication mechanisms. The system dynamically generates log files through Python while saving a cryptographic hash (SHA-256) for verification of file integrity. Security and authentication of these hashes occurs through an Ethereum blockchain smart contract named Sepolia testnet. The framework uses Remix IDE along with Web3.py through Infura to connect into the Ethereum Sepolia testnet for launching smart contracts development. Simulation results demonstrated the system effectiveness by showcasing how logs remain immutable while providing performance data including transaction processing time and gas usage and event output. The research demonstrates how blockchain technology can power real-time log verification systems and suggests foundations for future decentralized security system developments.
This research article presents a novel architecture to empower multi-agent economies by addressing two critical limitations of the emerging Agent2Agent (A2A) communication protocol: decentralized agent discoverability and agent-to-agent micropayments. By integrating distributed ledger technology (DLT), this architecture enables tamper-proof, on-chain publishing of AgentCards as smart contracts, providing secure and verifiable agent identities. The architecture further extends A2A with the x402 open standard, facilitating blockchain-agnostic, HTTP-based micropayments via the HTTP 402 status code. This enables autonomous agents to seamlessly discover, authenticate, and compensate each other across organizational boundaries. This work further presents a comprehensive technical implementation and evaluation, demonstrating the feasibility of DLT-based agent discovery and micropayments. The proposed approach lays the groundwork for secure, scalable, and economically viable multi-agent ecosystems, advancing the field of agentic AI toward trusted, autonomous economic interactions.
The fragmentation of AI agent ecosystems has created urgent demands for interoperability, trust, and economic coordination that current protocols -- including MCP (Hou et al., 2025), A2A (Habler et al., 2025), ACP (Liu et al., 2025), and Cisco's AGP (Edwards, 2025) -- cannot address at scale. We present the Nanda Unified Architecture, a decentralized framework built around three core innovations: fast DID-based agent discovery through distributed registries, semantic agent cards with verifiable credentials and composability profiles, and a dynamic trust layer that integrates behavioral attestations with policy compliance. The system introduces X42/H42 micropayments for economic coordination and MAESTRO, a security framework incorporating Synergetics' patented AgentTalk protocol (US Patent 12,244,584 B1) and secure containerization. Real-world deployments demonstrate 99.9 percent compliance in healthcare applications and substantial monthly transaction volumes with strong privacy guarantees. By unifying MIT's trust research with production deployments from Cisco and Synergetics, we show how cryptographic proofs and policy-as-code transform agents into trust-anchored participants in a decentralized economy (Lakshmanan, 2025; Sha, 2025). The result enables a globally interoperable Internet of Agents where trust becomes the native currency of collaboration across both enterprise and Web3 ecosystems.
Decentralized anonymous payment (DAP) solves the privacy leakage problem in decentralized payment. However, some criminals may use DAP to carry out illegal activities, since DAP supports unconditional privacy protection and illegal transactions are difficult to be identified and tracked. Some studies have introduced regulatory mechanisms in DAP to track illegal transactions, but there are still problems such as privacy disclosure and low regulatory efficiency. In this paper, we propose an efficient two-level supervision scheme ETLS, which aggregates anonymous transactions based on Walsh commitment. The first-level regulator only needs to process the aggregation results to screen out suspicious users, and the second-level regulator discloses the public keys of suspicious users. During the supervision process, only the public keys of suspicious users will be identified, and the privacy of compliant transactions will be kept confidential. Compared to previous works, the ETLS scheme greatly improves regulatory efficiency while ensuring the privacy of transaction address and payment amount. The security properties of the ETLS scheme are defined and proved based on the security of DAP system, the security of Walsh commitment and zero-knowledge proof, and its performance is tested based on the Zcash system. The findings demonstrate that the ETLS scheme can effectively strike a compromise between privacy protection and regulatory requirements while maintaining low computational and communication overheads.
William Bjorndahl, Maninder Singh, Farhad Nouri, Joseph Camp
The ever-growing demand for wireless bandwidth necessitates more flexible and efficient spectrum management techniques than those offered by traditional static allocations. This paper proposes an agent for transparent spectrum management empowered by integrating blockchain-based tokenization and metaheuristic optimization for dynamic spectrum management. The agent facilitates the use of Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) for long-term ownership of large spectrum blocks and Fungible Tokens (FTs) for fine-grained, short-term leasing of sub-blocks to smaller-scale users. A particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm matches supply to demand, providing efficient and fair resource allocation while minimizing interference. Additionally, zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) ensure user authentication without compromising privacy. The preliminary experimentation are performed on a private Ethereum test network and MATLAB simulations for integrability of these mechanisms.
Abstract Pixel-Web3 Wallet is a hierarchical deterministic (HD) wallet designed for secure and decentralized asset management across multiple blockchain networks, including Ethereum and Solana. Unlike traditional wallets that depend on browser extensions or centralized servers, Pixel offers a web-based solution with user-controlled security through locally stored seed phrases. This paper explores the wallet’s architecture, security framework, and innovative features, such as real-time balance updates and flexible recovery options. Additionally, the research evaluates the scalability of Pixel and its potential expansion to support more blockchain networks. By eliminating reliance on third-party services, Pixel enhances accessibility while maintaining strong security, making it a promising solution for blockchain enthusiasts, traders, and developers. Keywords: Blockchain, HD Wallet, Cryptocurrency,Web3,Ethereum,Solana, Security
Smart contracts power decentralized financial (DeFi) services but are vulnerable to security exploits that can lead to significant financial losses. Existing security measures often fail to adequately protect these contracts due to the composability of DeFi protocols and the increasing sophistication of attacks. Through a large-scale empirical study of historical transactions from the 37 hacked DeFi protocols, we discovered that while benign transactions typically exhibit a limited number of unique control flows, in stark contrast, attack transactions consistently introduce novel, previously unobserved control flows. Building on these insights, we developed CrossGuard, a novel framework that enforces control flow integrity onchain to secure smart contracts. Crucially, CrossGuard does not require prior knowledge of specific hacks. Instead, configured only once at deployment, it enforces control flow whitelisting policies and applies simplification heuristics at runtime. This approach monitors and prevents potential attacks by reverting all transactions that do not adhere to the established control flow whitelisting rules. Our evaluation demonstrates that CrossGuard effectively blocks 35 of the 37 analyzed attacks when configured only once at contract deployment, maintaining a low false positive rate of 0.26% and minimal additional gas costs. These results underscore the efficacy of applying control flow integrity to smart contracts, significantly enhancing security beyond traditional methods and addressing the evolving threat landscape in the DeFi ecosystem.
In order to improve functionality, security, and user experience, this chapter examines the design and implementation of a Web3 mobile platform that combines blockchain technology with artificial intelligence (AI). The methodology addresses major issues in usability, security, and scalability by employing an exploratory and developmental approach that prioritizes user-centered design principles and iterative feedback loops. The results show that greater trust and uptake of decentralized technologies are fostered by Web3 applications that are easy to use, safe, and scalable. The chapter emphasizes that in order to remove obstacles and build a strong Web3 ecosystem, stakeholders—including developers, investors, regulatory agencies, and users—must work together. The work's ramifications highlight how crucial it is to resolve present issues in order to fully utilize Web3 technologies' promise to transform digital interactions.
This paper introduces Bank-Guard Fusion System, a decentralized blockchain wallet system designed for secure cryptocurrency management. Utilizing blockchain's decentralized, cryptographic strengths, the platform enables wallet creation, balance checks, and transactions in a user- friendly, secure environment. Built with React.js, Flask, and MongoDB, it provides a seamless interface and decentralized data handling. Integrating Proof of Work (PoW) and Proof of Stake (PoS) for transaction validation, this solution enhances trust, transparency, and security, bridging users and blockchain technology to facilitate sustainable, scalable, and robust digital transactions. Keywords – Blockchain, Cryptocurrency, Flask, MongoDB, React.js, Decentralized Application, Wallet, Secure Transactions, PoW, PoS, XMSS, Hybrid Security