Blockchain Papers

Seyyed Jalaladdin Hosseini Dehshiri, Maghsoud Amiri, Seyed Mojtaba Hosseini Bamakan

No abstract is available for this record.

Michael M. Santos, Ana Teresa Vaz Ferreira, João Lanzinha

Africa has abundant solar resources but only 2% of its current capacity is generated from renewable sources. Photovoltaics (PV) offer sustainable, decentralized electricity access to meet development needs. This review synthesizes the recent literature on PV in Africa, with a focus on Mozambique. The 10 most cited studies highlight the optimization of technical components, such as storage and bifacial modules, and challenges in integrating large-scale PV. Case studies demonstrated Mozambique’s potential for PV applications in water heating, irrigation, and rural electrification. These benefits include reduced emissions and energy access. However, barriers, such as high costs, lack of infrastructure, and training, exist. While solar cookers are insufficient, thermal systems have unrealized potential. Mozambique’s urban and rural electrification rates are 57% and 13%, respectively, despite its energy resources. Targeted policies, financing, and community engagement are essential for promoting adoption. While PV can sustainably expand electricity access, coordinated efforts must address costs, infrastructure, maintenance, and social factors for successful implementation. Mozambique has immense solar potential, but strategic planning and support are critical to unlocking these benefits. This review provides insights into optimizing PV systems and policy frameworks for a clean and inclusive energy production future in Africa, to synthesize the 10 most cited studies on photovoltaic solar energy in Africa, and to deeply reflect upon the current energy needs in Mozambique, the benefits of employing PV and solar thermal systems, and the challenges of implementing such systems within the Mozambican context.

Sanaz Chamanara, Kaveh Madani

Based on a multi-attribute assessment of the environmental impacts and challenges associated with global Bitcoin (BTC) mining activities around the globe, we call for urgent action by the scientific, policy, and advocacy communities. The worldwide BTC mining network consumed 173.42 TWh of electricity during the 2020–2021 period, bigger than the electricity consumption of most nations. The mining process emitted over 85.89 Mt of CO2eq in the same timeframe, equivalent to the emission caused by burning 84 billion pounds of coal or running 190 natural gas-fired power plants. The environmental footprint of BTC mining is not limited to greenhouse gas emissions. In 2020–2021, the global water footprint of BTC mining was about 1.65 km 3, more than the domestic water use of 300 million people in rural Sub-Saharan Africa. The land footprint of the global BTC mining network during this period was more than 1,870 square kilometers, 1.4 times the area of Los Angeles. These striking numbers highlight the heavy reliance of the BTC network on fossil fuels and natural resource-intensive energy sources, resulting in major but unmonitored and unregulated environmental footprints. To mitigate the environmental costs of BTC mining, immediate policy interventions, technological advancements, and scientific research are crucial. Proposed measures include enhanced transparency, economic and regulatory tools, developing energy-efficient alternative coins, and the adoption of greener blockchain validation protocols.

Lanvin Concessao, Harsha Meenawat, Namrata Ginoya, Masfick Hazarika · 6 authors

Given the wide adoption of decentralized solar energy systems in rural health facilities, this report explores the role of decentralized solar energy interventions in rural health facilities and its linkages to provisioning of health care services, especially for underserved populations. It reviews current decentralized energy interventions across multiple Indian states under different financing, ownership, and operating modes and attempts to understand the lacunae that certain implementation models face in terms of scalability and what conditions are essential to ensure the sustainability of decentralized renewable energy (DRE) systems in rural health facilities in the long run. The report is a culmination of extensive literature review, in-person interviews, field visits to the health facilities, as well as our own experience in supporting development partners to implement decentralized solar energy solutions in India. We studied 22 health facilities that are being powered by decentralized solar energy systems in rural parts of six Indian states—i.e., Assam, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Meghalaya, and Odisha.

Sanaz Chamanara, S. Arman Ghaffarizadeh, Kaveh Madani

Abstract Based on a multi‐attribute assessment of the environmental impacts and challenges associated with global Bitcoin (BTC) mining activities around the globe, we call for urgent action by the scientific, policy, and advocacy communities. The worldwide BTC mining network consumed 173.42 TWh of electricity during the 2020–2021 period, bigger than the electricity consumption of most nations. The mining process emitted over 85.89 Mt of CO 2 eq in the same timeframe, equivalent to the emission caused by burning 84 billion pounds of coal or running 190 natural gas‐fired power plants. The environmental footprint of BTC mining is not limited to greenhouse gas emissions. In 2020–2021, the global water footprint of BTC mining was about 1.65 km 3 , more than the domestic water use of 300 million people in rural Sub‐Saharan Africa. The land footprint of the global BTC mining network during this period was more than 1,870 square kilometers, 1.4 times the area of Los Angeles. These striking numbers highlight the heavy reliance of the BTC network on fossil fuels and natural resource‐intensive energy sources, resulting in major but unmonitored and unregulated environmental footprints. To mitigate the environmental costs of BTC mining, immediate policy interventions, technological advancements, and scientific research are crucial. Proposed measures include enhanced transparency, economic and regulatory tools, developing energy‐efficient alternative coins, and the adoption of greener blockchain validation protocols.

Yongjun Lv

The pressing issues of climate change and the limited availability of non-renewable energy resources have created a growing need for sustainable energy alternatives. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the pressing need for sustainable energy solutions and the complex relationship between energy and the economy. The challenges and opportunities presented by the transition to sustainable energy sources are explored, including the need for investment in renewable energy technologies, policy changes to incentivize sustainable energy use, and the potential for job creation in the sustainable energy sector. On the other hand, it is recognized that there are considerable hurdles that need to be addressed, including the substantial initial expenses associated with establishing renewable energy systems, as well as the political and societal barriers to enacting change. The economic benefits of transitioning to sustainable energy, such as improved energy security, reduced dependence on fossil fuels, and the potential for increased economic growth, are evaluated. The complex relationship between energy and the economy is thoroughly analyzed, presenting a valuable contribution to the academic literature on sustainable energy. Furthermore, an inquiry is being made into the potential contribution of blockchain technology in advancing a sustainable energy landscape. This includes its ability to augment the effectiveness and openness of energy markets, as well as its capacity to assist in the assimilation of renewable energy resources. Hence, this research underscores the importance of transitioning to sustainable energy sources for their environmental and economic merits. The findings presented offer valuable insights to inform policy decisions and guide future research endeavors in this field. By promoting the advancement of sustainable energy technologies, this study contributes to the development of a more sustainable global economy.

Hua Cheng, Farhad Taghizadeh–Hesary

No abstract is available for this record.

Shixiu Zhao, Xiaoyi He, Kenjayeva Umriya Faxritdinovna

No abstract is available for this record.

Waseem Amjad, Anjum Munir, Fatima Akram, Aditya Parmar · 7 authors

Abstract The availability of on-farm storage and processing is a critical challenge facing small farmers, which hinders agricultural productivity. Thirty per cent of the food produced globally is lost after harvest, with the proportion being exceptionally high in low- and middle-income countries due to a lack of on-farm handling and storage facilities. Conventional cold-storage solutions have not taken off at the smallholder level, mainly due to a lack of availability and access to reliable grid electricity. Therefore, off-grid decentralized solar-powered cold-storage units can play a vital role in preserving the produce at production sites and enhancing livelihood and rural development with a minimal carbon footprint. To maintain low temperatures at every step of the agricultural value chain, known as the ‘cold chain’, several technology vendors aim to improve the shelf life and user benefit. Small-scale farmers, which account for two-thirds of all food losses, are another group they focus on. This study examines the existing situation, importance and potential opportunities of decentralized cold-storage systems for fresh fruit and vegetables. In addition to economic, social, technological and environmental limitations, this study examines the triumphs and challenges of incorporating solar-energy-powered cold storage into developing communities. Although the private sector, NGOs and some government agencies are working to promote decentralized cold-storage facilities, relatively little has been done so far to have a significant influence on post-harvest losses and food security. There are still knowledge gaps on decentralized cold-storage facilities. The primary operational constraint is the economic situation of end users and the lack of financing alternatives for smallholder farmers.

Sufyan Yakubu, Ravi Samikannu, J. Lydia, S. Leones Sherwin Vimalraj · 6 authors

This study examines the development of distributed Photo Voltaic (PV) systems for rural communities in Ghana. This study reviews the present situation of distributed PV systems in Ghana, highlighting the benefits and challenges associated with their implementation. The review draws on several key studies that analyze the policy landscape, potential for co-benefits, barriers to development, and economic feasibility of distributed PV systems. The findings indicate that while distributed PV systems offer numerous benefits, including increased access to electricity and reduced carbon emissions, several significant barriers to their development include financial constraints, limited private sector involvement, and unfavorable policies. The review concludes by suggesting that further research is needed to explore innovative financing mechanisms, effective policy frameworks, and improved public-private partnerships, which could accelerate the deployment of distributed PV systems and improve energy access for rural communities in Ghana.

Mohammed Lawal Giwah, Zamathula Queen Sikhakhane Nwokediegwu, Emmanuel Augustine Etukudoh, Ebimor Yinka Gbabo

Decentralized energy systems are increasingly recognized as a viable solution for extending electricity access to rural communities underserved by traditional grid infrastructure. However, their sustainability and scalability are often compromised by fragmented governance, limited community participation, and weak institutional coordination. This paper proposes a comprehensive multi-stakeholder governance model tailored to the complexities of decentralized energy delivery in rural contexts. Grounded in governance theory and stakeholder analysis, the model emphasizes five core principles: inclusivity, transparency, accountability, subsidiarity, and resilience. It clearly delineates the roles of government actors, private sector players, communities, and non-governmental organizations, and establishes mechanisms for collaborative decision-making, financial alignment, and adaptive oversight. The paper also explores policy and implementation considerations, including regulatory harmonization, blended financing strategies, and capacity building for local stakeholders. By addressing the institutional gaps that hinder rural electrification efforts, the proposed model contributes both theoretically to energy governance literature and practically to policy design and implementation. It offers a scalable, equitable framework that embeds trust, coordination, and long-term sustainability into decentralized energy transitions.

Nikolas Schöne, Raluca Dumitrescu, Boris Heinz

Hydrogen has recently been proposed as a versatile energy carrier to contribute to archiving universal access to clean cooking. In hard-to-reach rural settings, decentralized produced hydrogen may be utilized (i) as a clean fuel via direct combustion in pure gaseous form or blended with Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG), or (ii) via power-to-hydrogen-to-power (P2H2P) to serve electric cooking (e-cooking) appliances. Here, we present the first techno-economic evaluation of hydrogen-based cooking solutions. We apply mathematical optimization via energy system modeling to assess the minimal cost configuration of each respective energy system on technical and economic measures under present and future parameters. We further compare the potential costs of cooking for the end user with the costs of cooking with traditional fuels. Today, P2H2P-based e-cooking and production of hydrogen for utilization via combustion integrated into the electricity supply system have almost equal energy system costs to simultaneously satisfy the cooking and electricity needs of the isolated rural Kenyan village studied. P2H2P-based e-cooking might become advantageous in the near future when improving the energy efficiency of e-cooking appliances. The economic efficiency of producing hydrogen for utilization by end users via combustion benefits from integrating the water electrolysis into the electricity supply system. More efficient and cheaper hydrogen technologies expected by 2050 may improve the economic performance of integrated hydrogen production and utilization via combustion to be competitive with P2H2P-based e-cooking. The monthly costs of cooking per household may be lower than the traditional use of firewood and charcoal even today when applying the current life-line tariff for the electricity consumed or utilizing hydrogen via combustion. Driven by likely future technological improvements and the expected increase in traditional and fossil fuel prices, any hydrogen-based cooking pathway may be cheaper for end users than using charcoal and firewood by 2030, and LPG by 2040. The results suggest that providing clean cooking in rural villages could economically and environmentally benefit from utilizing hydrogen. However, facing the complexity of clean cooking projects, we emphasize the importance of embedding the results of our techno-economic analysis in holistic energy delivery models. We propose useful starting points for future aspects to be investigated in the discussion section, including business and financing models.

Anu G Kumar, M R Sindhu, Vivek Mohan, Rekha Viswanathan · 5 authors

Rooftop solar PV in India has seen good progress in the Commercial and industrial sectors, but the progress in the domestic sector is relatively slow due to the high initial installation cost. Thus, there arises the need for good market models for Rooftop Solar (RTS) implementation. This paper conducts a comparative study of workable RTS market models by employing the discounted cash flow method, as per the recent regulatory guidelines. Market models are formulated and tested for a typical residential high-rise apartment complex in India comprising 15 storied buildings with a combined maximum demand of 180kVA. The results suggest that the centralized community RTS model of 80kWp capacity with upfront financing is suitable when compared to the decentralized individual model, as it has the lowest levelized cost of 3.39 ₹/kWh and a payback period of 5.5 years. With the federal subsidy, the prosumer levelized cost reduces to 2.06 ₹/kWh with a payback period of 3.3 years. Thus grid parity is achieved for all tariff tier rates. With adaptive staggering strategy, this scheme is validated to be more attractive for the urban residential microgrids, as the solar installation of 80kWp and its cost can be staggered and even reduced over the planning period. Hence capital installation and operation costs can be distributed over the stipulated time interval. The study result gives RTS stakeholders insight into selecting the most cost-effective market model to suit their requirements. Financial analysis of the proposed models provides input to the customers, developers, and policymakers to assess the financial merit of adopting the suitable business model for RTS development. The proposed analysis can be replicated for high-rise residential buildings, especially in cities with high electricity tariffs. With time, a decrease in solar PV installation price and an increase in grid price are expected; hence, the overall investment cost gets reduced and staggered.

Nallapaneni Manoj Kumar, Shauhrat S. Chopra

No abstract is available for this record.

Hao Zhang, Ye Duan, Jun Yang, Han Zeng-lin · 5 authors

Green finance is crucial to advancing the decrease of haze pollution in my nation as a new kind of environmental governance. This research constructs a comprehensive evaluation system of green finance to analyze the impact of green finance on haze pollution reduction and to consider the mediating role of energy efficiency in 30 provinces and regions in China. Through a series of robustness tests, the mechanism and path of green finance on haze pollution reduction are confirmed. The main conclusions are as follows: First, the development of green finance has a positive effect on haze pollution reduction. Second, the upgrading of industrial structure and the improvement of technological level are important paths for green finance to promote haze pollution reduction, and can also have an indirect impact through energy efficiency. The moderating and mediating effects of energy efficiency and green finance can effectively promote the reduction of haze pollution. In other words, the development of green finance can achieve the goal of reducing haze pollution by improving energy efficiency. Third, there is regional heterogeneity in green finance for haze pollution reduction, and regions with high levels of green finance are more effective in reducing haze pollution. Fourth, environmental Supervision, environmental decentralization and average wind speed can promote haze pollution reduction, economic development to some extent exacerbated the haze pollution. Based on the above research conclusions, this paper puts forward corresponding countermeasures and suggestions.

Oluleke Babayomi, Babatunde Olubayo, Iheanacho H. Denwigwe, Tobiloba Somefun · 8 authors

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is home to 75% of the world’s unelectrified population, and approximately 500 million of these live in rural areas. Off-grid mini-grids are being deployed on a large scale to address the region’s electrification inequalities. This study aims to provide a comprehensive review of the research on the off-grid renewable mini-grids in SSA. The study covers the current status of the level of deployment of off-grid mini-grids. It also reviews multi-criteria decision-making models for optimizing engineering, economics, and management interests in mini-grid siting and design in SSA. The statuses of financing, policy, and tariffs for mini-grids in SSA are also studied. Finally, the current status of energy justice research in respect of mini-grids in SSA is reviewed. The study shows the important role of decentralized renewable technologies in the electrification of SSA’s rural population. Within a decade since 2010, the rural electrification rate of SSA has increased from 17% to 28%, and 11 million mini-grid connections are currently operational. Despite these gains, the literature points to several injustices related to the present model by which SSA’s renewable mini-grids are funded, deployed, and operated. Hence, several recommendations are provided for the effective application of the energy justice framework (EJF) for just and equitable mini-grids in SSA.

Saumendra Das, H. Swapnarekha, S. Vimal

No abstract is available for this record.

Sufyan Yakubu, Ravi Samikannu, S. Ganesh Kumar, Vishnu Kumar Kaliappan · 5 authors

This review paper examines the development of distributed Photo Voltaic (PV) systems for rural communities in Ghana.The paper provides a review of the present situation of distributed PV systems in Ghana, highlighting the benefits and challenges associated with their implementation.The review draws on several key studies, which analyse the policy landscape, the potential for co-benefits, the barriers to development, and the economic feasibility of distributed PV systems.The findings indicate that while distributed PV systems offer numerous benefits, including increased access to electricity and reduce carbon emissions, there are several significant barriers to their development, including financial constraints, limited private sector involvement, and unfavourable policies.The review concludes by suggesting that further research is needed to explore innovative financing mechanisms, effective policy frameworks, and improved public-private partnerships, which could accelerate the deployment of distributed PV systems and improve energy access for rural communities in Ghana.

Rajini Kanth Reddy Karduri, Christo Ananth

No abstract is available for this record.

Abdul-Jalil Ibrahim

No abstract is available for this record.

Murray A. Rudd

Bitcoin critics have argued that energy-intensive Bitcoin production and adoption will exacerbate global warming. Conversely, Bitcoin advocates have been dismayed by critics’ apparent lack of willingness to scrutinize Bitcoin’s potential role in helping to improve the economics of renewable energy investments, reduce net emissions from methane venting and flaring, increase electricity grid efficiency, and provide higher-order environmental, social, and governance (ESG) benefits. Given the disparate views, there is a pressing need to identify key knowledge needs regarding Bitcoin’s net energy use, carbon emissions, and direct and indirect ESG impacts. I used a variation on the ‘key questions’ horizon scanning approach to identify 100 questions that, if answered, could help provide credible evidence to support policymakers’, investors’, and research funders’ decision-making on issues relating to the impact of Bitcoin production and adoption. The questions are distributed across 13 themes (ranging from energy use to social impacts). The breadth of knowledge required to answer key questions highlights the need to build research capacity, encourage collaborative cross-sectoral and -disciplinary research, and develop a prioritized research agenda. Defensible evidence for investors, regulators, and policymakers needs to consider Bitcoin’s complex net impacts on energy use and environmental, social, and governance benefits.

Munir Ahmad, Elma Šatrović

No abstract is available for this record.

George Arende, Sofia Gonçalves

Abstract The transition to “SDG7 -modern and sustainable energy for all” may reconfigure the lives of citizens who live “outside the grid” in the rural communities in sub-Saharan Africa. The decentralization approach for developing renewable energy in sub-Saharan Africa has constantly been promoted as a means to rural electrification. This paper reviews the barriers to private sector participation in decentralized electrification projects and the solutions that have been proposed and implemented. It is not only the economic approaches that are analysed but also some of the solutions or drivers that have contributed to rural electrification. There are specific technological pathways which have proven fruitful in sub-Saharan Africa that are unique to its economic and demographic settings and that otherwise would not be adopted or used in developed countries. This paper finally analyses these technological pathways with the objective of matching the drivers and obstacles to potential solutions. Long term energy planning with the integration of regional power pools is instrumental to reduce CAPEX as well as to increase the market size. Blended financing together with already working technologies such as pay-as-you-go, and mobile money will be the pillars to meeting SDG7 goals.

Jean Mulopo

As part of the Kyoto Protocol, several Sub-Saharan Africa countries vowed to use more renewable energy sources, and the number of Sub-Saharan Africa countries that have undertaken renewable energy initiatives has expanded considerably over the preceding decade. However, assuring demand while reducing climate change has always been one of the most significant difficulties confronting the global energy sector. This review looks at the state of practical renewable energy interventions in Sub-Saharan Africa countries over the last decade (2010-2020), focusing on infrastructure development and accessibility, decentralization, distribution, and communal acceptance, donor funding and private sector involvement, and the role of state political influence in renewable energy strategies. This study's findings suggest that renewable energy interventions in Sub-Saharan Africa are based on mature and commercialized technologies, that natural resources for energy generation have not been fully explored, and that ongoing research and development on raw material or feedstock availability will benefit regional and national projects. The findings also show that off-grid technology interventions exist in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, the adoption of a decentralized approach to renewable energy generation, particularly in rural areas, financing, and the need for integrated project design and implementation, which includes factors such as community mobilization, social, economic, institutional, and technical engagement, have all hampered the implementation of such technologies.