In recent years, several blockchain-based models have emerged to provide a secure way to store and access sensitive electronic medical records (EMRs) across the healthcare sector. These records are of different priorities and business requirements. From our comprehensive literature review, we observe that the existing models have no provision of prioritizing the EMR transactions. This critically affects the quick and streamline sharing of emergency EMRs in a smart healthcare environment. Furthermore, the lack of prioritization significantly restricts the optimal usage of the blockchain network. Motivated by this, we first propose a lightweight and deterministic method to prioritize the flow of emergency healthcare transactions through the smart contract. We also propose logical stateless transaction models for different entities involved in the system with varying levels of trust. Finally, the performance of the model based on the private Ethereum is verified and it outperforms the existing benchmark model in terms of usefulness in the healthcare setting and computation overhead with the use of a simple prioritizing algorithm. The obtained results demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed scheme in the real-time smart healthcare system.
Since the Ethereum virtual machine is Turing complete, Ethereum can implement various complex logics such as mutual calls and nested calls between functions. Therefore, Ethereum has suffered a lot of attacks since its birth, and there are still many attackers active in Ethereum transactions. To this end, we propose a traceability method on Ethereum, using graph analysis to track attackers. We collected complete user transaction data to construct the graph and analyzed data on several harmful attacks, including reentry attacks, short address attacks, DDoS attacks, and Ponzi contracts. Through graph analysis, we found accounts that are strongly associated with these attacks and are still active. We have done a systematic analysis of these accounts to analyze their threats. Finally, we also analyzed the correlation between the information collected through RPC and these accounts and finally found that some accounts can find their IP addresses.
Jan 26, 2022·2022 Joint International Conference on Digital Arts, Media and Technology with ECTI Northern Section Conference on Electrical, Electronics, Computer and Telecommunications Engineering (ECTI DAMT & NCON)
DeFi or Decentralized Finance is a new type of financial application that does not require an intermediary. Banks or financial institutions. DeFi is built on Blockchain technology that stores DeFi transaction data or “decentralized finance” and aims to create financial services that are open to all. The DeFi platform can operate by itself without any control and is called “Smart Contract.” It is widely used as an infrastructure for developers. Decentralized Applications (Dapps), which is the purpose of this research aims to study the operating system and capabilities of each platform. The creators of Etheruem, in addition to Vitalik Bulletin, are also other founding members who co-founded Ethereum, some of them have branched out to create their own networks, such as Gavin Woord who spun off to create Polkadot (DOT), or Charles Hoskinson who spun out to create Cardano (ADA), and Fabian Vogelsteller who spun out to create Lukso (LYXe), etc. All three networks are proof-of-stake blockchains, unlike Ethereum, which is Proof-of-Work and Proof-of-Stake system which can do higher processing speed Proof-of-Work. It saves a lot of energy, and instead of having each computer compete with each other to solve the equation in exchange for permission to verify transactions, Proof-of-Stake. The reviewers are randomly selected by the system with higher processing speeds than Ethereum. These networks are called third-generation Blockchain Ethereum. It is about to have a major update called “Ethereum 2.0” that will change the network to Proof-of-Stake including modifying various systems to make it easier to use for the general public. This update is expected to take effect in the year 2022.
R. Rajadevi, E.M Roopa Devi, R.S. Latha, S. Harshini · 6 authors
Electronic Medical Records(EMRs) are files that contain very sensitive and private information regarding a patient's diagnosis and treatment that must be exchanged often across peers. Sharing medical records amongst participants is highly difficult due to the risk of data leakage or alteration throughout the operational procedure. The key solution to these issues is a blockchain-based electronic medical records system. A blockchain-based records management system is proposed for the maintenance and sharing of electronic medical information. The doctor and the patient can use this technology to save and access medical data in the blockchain network. The metamask generates the amount required to mine the data and store it in the blockchain when any data is to be saved. The amount generated is expressed in gas form. The data is subsequently converted into ethereum currency using metamask. The blockchain network then mines the data, which is then put to the blockchain. When a doctor wishes to see the data, they must input the OTP that was issued to the patient's registered email. Medical data of patients is extremely sensitive and must be safeguarded. Blockchain technology could be a viable solution to the issue. The hospital's electronic health system will benefit from a medical data exchange and protection plan based on the blockchain.
In this article we describe an application used for Ethereum smart contract templating. The idea for using this application is that anyone who needs to compute a well-decomposed and well-parallelized task, which requires huge computing power, would be able to use the application presented in the article for smart-contract generation and automatically install them into the Ethereum network. Thus, such a user does not need to have own huge computing powers or depend on cloud provider because blockchain networks are fully decentralized.
It is interesting but difficult and challenging to study Ethereum with multiple mining pools. One of the main difficulties comes from not only how to represent such a general tree with multiple block branches (or sub-chains) related to the multiple mining pools, but also how to analyze a multi-dimensional stochastic system due to the mining competition among the multiple mining pools. In this paper, we first set up a mathematical representation for the tree with multiple block branches. Then we provide a block classification of Ethereum: Regular blocks (in the main chain), orphan blocks, uncle blocks, stale blocks, and nephew blocks, and give some key ratios and probabilities of generating the different types of blocks by applying the law of large numbers. Based on this, we further discuss the growth rate of blockchain and the reward allocation among the multiple mining pools through applying the renewal reward theorem. Finally, we use some simulation experiments to verify our theoretical results, and show that the approximate computation approaches developed, such as the key ratios and probabilities, the long-term growth rate of blockchain, and the long-term reward allocation (rate) among the multiple mining pools, can have a faster convergence. Therefore, we provide a powerful tool for observing and understanding the influence of the selfish mining attacks on the performance of Ethereum with multiple mining pools. We believe that the methodology and results developed in this paper will shed light on the study of Ethereum with multiple mining pools, such that a series of promising research can be inspired potentially.
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Zero-knowledge proof (ZKP) mixers are one of the most widely-used blockchain privacy solutions, operating on top of smart contract-enabled blockchains. We find that ZKP mixers are tightly intertwined with the growing number of Decentralized Finance (DeFi) attacks and Blockchain Extractable Value (BEV) extractions. Through coin flow tracing, we discover that 205 blockchain attackers and 2,595 BEV extractors leverage mixers as their source of funds, while depositing a total attack revenue of 412.87M USD. Moreover, the US OFAC sanctions against the largest ZKP mixer, Tornado.Cash, have reduced the mixer's daily deposits by more than 80%. Further, ZKP mixers advertise their level of privacy through a so-called anonymity set size, which similarly to k-anonymity allows a user to hide among a set of k other users. Through empirical measurements, we, however, find that these anonymity set claims are mostly inaccurate. For the most popular mixers on Ethereum (ETH) and Binance Smart Chain (BSC), we show how to reduce the anonymity set size on average by 27.34% and 46.02% respectively. Our empirical evidence is also the first to suggest a differing privacy-predilection of users on ETH and BSC. State-of-the-art ZKP mixers are moreover interwoven with the DeFi ecosystem by offering anonymity mining (AM) incentives, i.e., users receive monetary rewards for mixing coins. However, contrary to the claims of related work, we find that AM does not necessarily improve the quality of a mixer's anonymity set. Our findings indicate that AM attracts privacy-ignorant users, who then do not contribute to improving the privacy of other mixer users.
Blockchain relay schemes enable cross-chain state proofs without requiring trusted intermediaries. This is achieved by applying the source blockchain’s consensus validation protocol on the target blockchain. Existing chain relays allow for the validation of blocks created using the Proof of Work (PoW) protocol. Since PoW entails high energy consumption, limited throughput, and no guaranteed finality, Proof of Stake (PoS) blockchain protocols are increasingly popular for addressing these shortcomings. We propose Verilay, the first chain relay scheme that enables validating PoS protocols that produce finalized blocks, for example, Ethereum 2.0, Cosmos, and Polkadot. The concept does not require changes to the source blockchain protocols or validator operations. Signatures of block proposers are validated by a dedicated relay smart contract on the target blockchain. In contrast to basic PoW chain relays, Verilay requires only a subset of block headers to be submitted in order to maintain full verifiability. This yields enhanced scalability. We provide a prototypical implementation that facilitates the validation of Ethereum 2.0 beacon chain headers within the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM). Our evaluation proves the applicability to Ethereum 1.0’s mainnet and confirms that only a fraction of transaction costs are required compared to PoW chain relay updates.
Rane Nikita, S J Subhashini, B S Yashwin, Vishal K Vavle · 5 authors
Cryptocurrency is a computerized method of money where transactions are done in the cyber space. This is a digital/soft currency, unlike currency notes they are not hard copies. Emphasizing the varieties of currencies that are decentralized and do not have any third party involvement, therefore ensuring that users can get all the services. Because of the high volatility the currency impacts the international trade and relations. Etherium, Ripple, Bitcoin, Litecoin some examples of popular currencies that exists. The study on popular cryptocurrencies Bitcoin, Ripple, Etherium are performed every year. An effective way to improve the method of predictions using deep learning models namely Grated Reccurrent Unit (GRU) and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM). The research is devoted to the problems related to predicting crypto currency prices using machine learning and data science. The main algorithms used are: RNN and GRU. The data set will include the past price information from the popular crypto currencies for example: Bitcoin, Ethereum and Ripple. LSTM, RNN and GRU algorithms already exist to predict the future price action but the predictability rate is subpar. The main goal is to combine RNN and GRU Algorithms to form a hybrid and possibly increase the accuracy of the predictions.
With the advancement of electricity marketization, distributed power trading and time-of-use price mechanism have become important directions. A distributed power time-of-use trading model based on blockchain technology is designed in this paper, and the trading process is introduced in detail. The transaction is established in an annual cycle and settled monthly. The trading model adopts the average price of the seller’s and buyer’s quotation price by matchmaking. A reasonable default compensation mechanism has been designed, which is conducive to promoting buyers and sellers to publish accurate and reasonable purchase and sale information as far as possible. A distributed power time-of-use trading system based on blockchain technology is developed on the Ethereum platform. Combined with a distributed power time-of-use trading example, the feasibility of the trading system for distributed power time-of-use trading is verified. The distributed power time-of-use trading system can achieve fair and equal trading between distributed generations and power customers, and improve the trading efficiency of distributed power, which enhances the enthusiasm of all parties to participate in transactions and the local consumption of distributed renewable energy.
Credentials are one of the most important things to prove oneself in modern society. As the world goes digital, credentials change its form from paper to digital. However, digital data are easy to be forged and to be duplicated. To make digital data secure, cryptographic digital signature is the key technology ensuring its authenticity and integrity. And it is an inevitable choice for secure credential management systems. Recently blockchain has been raised as another key technology to guarantee data transparency. It is a decentralized and public ledger of transactions that anyone can participate and execute programs called smart contract. In this paper, we propose a credential management system based on Ethereum blockchain. This system provides users with a means both to manage their credentials by themselves and to prove their credentials without the issuer. We implemented its prototype on Ethereum, and analyzed the proposed system compared to previous systems.
Blockchain technology is proven as one of the promising digital transformation technologies that can engender immutable records, provide end to culminate transparency, and distributed ledger. The electrical vehicle (EV) era commenced in the past few years. Many automobile manufacturers are moving towards zero-carbon vehicles. In order to achieve the sustainability goals and truncate the carbon footprint, fight against climate change, EV is considered as one of the solutions. This research fixates on the integration of blockchain with EV that can monitor the lifecycle, introduce special schemes for EV buyers like toll-free, free charging, parking free that can incentivize the people to buy the EV. Since it is integrated with blockchain, tracking becomes much more facile, and the reward points could be given through cryptocurrency. Ethereum truffle framework was used to test the EV blockchain consortium.
Sai Bharadwaj Atreyapurapu, K Amarendra, Mohammed Muzamil Alishah
Hyperledger Fabric is a permissioned distributed ledger framework for developing solutions and applications that works at the enterprise grade. It is one of the latest blockchain framework that is built as foundation for developing products, solutions, and applications based on blockchain. Lately, the pandemic has changed a lot in the medical system throughout the world. Patients required immediate attention where doctors were scarce. This has led to the implementation of blockchain technologies for designing online applications to provide patients with better and secure services. The private blockchain is implemented using Hyperledger Fabric that records the patients' data. This provides better security and prevents loss of data through redundancy. Blockchain has gained popularity lately due to the rise of the cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, Ethereum etc. Their value has sky-rocketed with the amount of attention they gained during the pandemic. An application of blockchain technology i.e. Distributed Ledger Protocol (DLT) called Hyperledger Fabric developed by Linux Foundation is used to solve many business use cases like storing health records, managing financial transactions etc.
Nayana N. Kumar, Rajinder Kumar, Riya Rajshekhar Basale, Mohammed Saffath
In today's world, education is an integral part of the societal life. Where the students' records are vulnerable to mutability, hacking and tampering due to the centralized storage of the educational assets. Addressing these problems, this paper aims to solve them by the application of a decentralized education model using the Blockchain Technology. The student's educational assets are cryptographically hashed and represented using the Non-Fungible Tokens(NFTs) to uniquely identify each educational asset, which are stored on the Ethereum Blockchain, Due to the limitations of cost and data storage on the blockchain, Interplanetary File System (IPFS) is implemented, where the original data is stored and the unique Id returned by the IPFS i.e., Content Identifier(CID) is used by the users to access the Educational Asset.
Blockchain is the distributed decentralized application for developing many of the use cases. In blockchain, the applications are transparent to all the nodes in the decentralized network and the application may be private or public depends upon the use cases. The nodes in the distributed network shares all the data to the other nodes without any modification in the blockchain technology. The transaction by the node is secured through the digital signatures. In this paper, we implemented the application by confirming the transaction without paying the gas fee by deploying the smart contract. The solidity is a JavaScript programming language for writing our smart contract. We explained the gas optimization technique used by the users and the gas station network in a decentralized application and also explained about the parameters in the Ethereum transactions. We used the open zeppelin library, which allows us to run our 𝐷𝑎𝑝𝑝 to implement the gasless transaction.
The upcoming technology in creating the distributed applications for different use cases in real world applications are Blockchain technologies. The application may be private or public depending upon the use cases. Most of the applications are built by using the Ethereum platform in blockchain for use of security purpose. The nodes in the distributed network shares all the data to the other nodes without any modification of the data in the blockchain technology. The transactions done by the nodes were trusted through the digital signatures. Here, no central control or the central system will be there to keep track of other nodes data. In this paper, we built the POA network by using the Ethereum blockchain platform. The network is called the Proof of Authority and its main purpose is to deploy the contracts especially with authority in the Ethereum blockchain platform. We also explained about the ERC20 tokens, the working process of using the POA network and the codes for connecting with the web page.
<div>Abstract—Despite the various advantages inherent in the use of blockchain technology, blockchain application platforms are characterized by bottlenecks, latency, energy inefficiency, time inefficiency, low transaction throughput, vulnerability to 51% attacks, and a lack of fairness in the sharing of mining proceeds. These challenges are currently affecting the performance of this technology, hindering its rapid development and adoption for real-time applications such as Electronic Voting Applications (EVAs). It is well known that the consensus mechanism responsible for the security and consistency features of a blockchain, is also responsible for most of the above challenges.</div><div>In this paper, a new consensus mechanism, Proof of Vote (PoV) is proposed, a lightweight consensus mechanism specifically adapted for EVA, as a replacement for the heavyweight Proof of Work (PoW) consensus algorithm. We use the Ethereum blockchain as a decentralized application platform, in which we develop a decentralized electronic voting application (ADEVA), replacing the Ethereum PoW consensus algorithm with the proposed PoV consensus algorithm. Thus we implemented ADEVA with PoV and compared it to the two major consensus mechanisms: Proof of work (PoW) and Proof of Stake (PoS). We found that PoV enhanced the performance of ADEVA over and above that achieved using PoW and PoS. The low resource utilization and high transaction throughput of ADEVA with PoV makes it a scalable solution for real-world EVAs.</div>
Blockchain systems come with a promise of decentralization that often stumbles on a roadblock when key decisions about modifying the software codebase need to be made. This is attested by the fact that both of the two major cryptocurrencies, Bitcoin and Ethereum, have undergone hard forks that resulted in the creation of alternative systems, creating confusion and opportunities for fraudulent activities. These events, and numerous others, underscore the importance of Blockchain governance, namely the set of processes that blockchain platforms utilize in order to perform decision-making and converge to a widely accepted direction for the system to evolve. While a rich topic of study in other areas, governance of blockchain platforms is lacking a well established set of methods and practices that are adopted industry wide. This makes the topic of blockchain governance a fertile domain for a thorough systematization that we undertake in this work. We start by distilling a comprehensive array of properties for sound governance systems drawn from academic sources as well as grey literature of election systems and blockchain white papers. These are divided into seven categories, confidentiality, verifiability, accountability, sustainability, Pareto efficiency, suffrage and liveness that capture the whole spectrum of desiderata of governance systems. We proceed to classify ten well-documented blockchain systems. While all properties are satisfied, even partially, by at least one system, no system that satisfies most of them. Our work lays out a foundation for assessing blockchain governance processes. While it highlights shortcomings and deficiencies in currently deployed systems, it can also be a catalyst for improving these processes to the highest possible standard with appropriate trade-offs, something direly needed for blockchain platforms to operate effectively in the long term.
Sai Batchu, Karan Patel, Owen S. Henry, Aleem Mohamed · 9 authors
Introduction The emergence and rapid spread of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic have revealed the limitations in current healthcare systems to handle patient records securely and transparently, and novel protocols are required to address these shortcomings. An attractive option is the use of Ethereum smart contracts to secure the storage of medical records and concomitant data logs. Ethereum is an open-source platform that can be used to construct smart contracts, which are collections of code that allow transactions under certain parameters and are self-executable. Methods The present study developed a proof-of-concept smart contract that stores COVID-19 patient data such as the patient identifier (ID), variant, chest CT grade, and significant comorbidities. A sample, fictitious patient data for the purpose of testing was configured to a private network. A smart contract was created in the Ethereum state and tested by measuring the time to insert and query patient data. Results Testing with a private, Proof of Authority (PoA) network required only 191 milliseconds and 890 MB of memory per insertion to insert 50 records while inserting 350 records required 674 milliseconds and similar memory per insertion, as memory per insertion was nearly constant with the increasing number of records inserted. Retrieving required 912 MB for a query involving all three fields and no wildcards in a 350-record database. Only 883 MB was needed to procure a similar observation from a 50-record database. Conclusion This study exemplifies the use of smart contracts for efficient retrieval/insertion of COVID-19 patient data and provides a case use of secure and efficient data logging for sensitive COVID-19 data.
Mike Wu, Will McTighe, Kaili Wang, István András Seres · 12 authors
A common misconception among blockchain users is that pseudonymity guarantees privacy. The reality is almost the opposite. Every transaction one makes is recorded on a public ledger and reveals information about one's identity. Mixers, such as Tornado Cash, were developed to preserve privacy through "mixing" transactions with those of others in an anonymity pool, making it harder to link deposits and withdrawals from the pool. Unfortunately, it is still possible to reveal information about those in the anonymity pool if users are not careful. We introduce Tutela, an application built on expert heuristics to report the true anonymity of an Ethereum address. In particular, Tutela has three functionalities: first, it clusters together Ethereum addresses based on interaction history such that for an Ethereum address, we can identify other addresses likely owned by the same entity; second, it shows Ethereum users their potentially compromised transactions; third, Tutela computes the true size of the anonymity pool of each Tornado Cash mixer by excluding potentially compromised transactions. A public implementation of Tutela can be found at https://github.com/TutelaLabs/tutela-app. To use Tutela, visit https://www.tutela.xyz.
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Nihar Ranjan Pradhan, D. Anil Kumar, Akhilendra Pratap Singh
Tracking the shipment of blood is difficult, and violation of maintaining critical parameters leads to wastage and spoilage. IoT sensors can be used to monitor temperature, pressure, humidity, exposed to light, broken seal, etc. In our work, we implemented and tested an Ethereum based smart contract in solidity platform. Although several research works have been carried out in the blood bank inventory system, few of them focus on its security, transparency, and traceability. Health record sharing without modification is essential. Blockchain-based blood bank systems can resolve the need for individuals to access, trace, manage, and share their health and blood-related information which is immutable. Blood traceability can increase the availability systems to blood bank system and determines the number of quantities to transport from cities to a rural area. Delay in availability, results in delay in surgery or may lead to death. The blockchain-based system is a confidential environment which acts as a communication hub between donors, doctors, testing labs, and recipients or patients. To address these issues, we have designed a blockchain-based solution for the blood bank system.