The pervasiveness of the Internet of Things (IoT) has enabled the administration of a large number of intelligent devices. However, IoT is based on centralised models, which introduce a number of problems, such as a single point of failure and security risks. Blockchain may offer a viable option for addressing these concerns. Practically, both blockchain and IoT are complex technologies posing further challenges in assessing application performance. The availability of a reliable simulation environment for Blockchain based IoT applications would be a major aid in the development and evaluation of such applications. Our research has found that currently there are no simulators with a comprehensive set of features, for the development and evaluation of blockchain based IoT applications, which is the main motivation for our work. The purpose of this study is to gather the opinions of experts regarding the creation of a simulation environment for IoT based blockchain applications. To do this, we utilise two separate investigations. First, a questionnaire is developed to ensure that the development of such simulation software would be of significant use. Second, interviews with participants are performed to gain their perspectives on the primary issues they face with blockchain-based IoT applications. In addition, the interviews focused on collecting the perspectives of participants on how blockchain may improve IoT and how to identify blockchain's applicability in IoT. Our findings demonstrate that the participants had a great deal of confidence in blockchain to resolve IoT issues. However, they lack the tools necessary to assess this concept. This highlights their requirement for a simulator to analyse the integration of blockchain and IoT.
Malcolm A. Smith, Alexander Castro, Mohamed Rahouti, Moussa Ayyash · 5 authors
One hundred thousand bulletins, eight thousand digital billboards, one million busses, forty thousand taxis, and thirty-five thousand movie theaters are examples of out-of-home (OOH) advertising. OOH is an advertising media located outside homes, generally found in highly-transited public locations. Digital out-of-home advertising is any OOH media displayed digitally, such as on a digital billboard. OOH advertising is a growing multi-billion-dollar industry that remains controlled by a small number of parties, stakeholders, or providers with high barriers to entry for advertisers. Large purchase minimums have made it impractical for low-budget advertiser to publish their content on OOH platforms. This paper introduces the ScreenCoin protocol, a solution to this issue that utilizes a decentralized ad network built on a blockchain and a token called Screencoin to advertise content. In this system, miners will earn tokens by storing and serving advertisers’ content, creating a decentralized OOH ad network with fewer entry barriers.
Aisyah Ismail, Mark Toohey, Young Choon Lee, Zhongli Dong · 5 authors
Blockchain technology is an immutable append-only decentralized ledger that theoretically makes it an ideal data storage system. The nature of blockchain design ensures stored data is reliable, trustworthy, and transparent. However, the blockchain's full-replication feature makes it ineffective to store a large volume of data directly on-chain. This paper provides a systematic review and analysis of existing decentralized file systems. Our focus was on systems that can support large, high-frequency data writing while still providing swift and easy data retrieval for blockchain-based applications. The challenge, in our view, is to find ways to achieve those efficiency outcomes while still retaining the key decentralized features of blockchain design. With that in mind, we assessed the costs involved in using nine state-of-the-art decentralized file systems and we also considered their latency performance.
Blockchain has gained considerable traction over the last few years and plays a critical role in realizing decentralized and cryptocurrency applications. A challenge that has been over-looked in prior blockchain algorithms is that they do not consider large-scale network outages and relied on the assumption of a reliable global network connectivity. In the event of a large scale network partition, forks may occur between partitioned regions. After the partition ends they will be discarded, leading to the loss of many blocks and a considerable amount of wasted work. This paper presents PeloPartition, which provides a sharding mechanism to improve blockchain's resilience to the possibility of a global internet outage. In PeloPartition we form consensus groups dynamically and consider the partitioning of the group as a hint to split the blockchain into branches and guarantee that all of them will be merged after the network is recovered. We indicate different methodologies to ensure blockchain security while partitioning occurs. Our experiments use simulations to show how this approach can improve the performance of blockchain algorithms and prevent wasted computational power during partitioning.
Cache-enabled device-to-device (D2D) communication is a promising approach to minimize data traffic and reduce communication costs and extra resource consumption. However, mobile user equipments (MUEs) have resource scarcity problems for storage, computation capacity, and battery lifetime. Due to these limited resources among untrusted MUEs, it becomes challenging to keep large content caches, maintain service quality, and provide secure transaction exchanges in D2D communication. Thus, Blockchain-enabled D2D content caching (BDCC) has recently become a new approach for caching popular content locally and sharing it with other MUEs securely and efficiently in a decentralized manner. Nevertheless, the existing BDCC system lacks an optimal incentive mechanism that motivates content providers (CPs) and content requestors (CRs) to maximize profit and utility. Hence, to address these problems, we introduce an efficient pricing-based incentive scheme that uses a two-stage Stackelberg game to allow the CPs and CRs to adjust the optimal strategy while maximizing their profit continually. Finally, the simulation results show that the proposed incentive scheme outperforms the baseline schemes in terms of the utility of CPs and CRs and the cache hit and miss ratio of the BDCC system.
Aug 1, 2022·2022 IEEE International Conferences on Internet of Things (iThings) and IEEE Green Computing & Communications (GreenCom) and IEEE Cyber, Physical & Social Computing (CPSCom) and IEEE Smart Data (SmartData) and IEEE Congress on Cybermatics (Cybermatics)
As the COVID-19 continues to spread globally, more and more companies are transforming into remote online offices, leading to the expansion of electronic signatures. However, the existing electronic signatures platform has the problem of data-centered management. The system is subject to data loss, tampering, and leakage when an attack from outside or inside occurs. In response to the above problems, this paper designs an electronic signature solution and implements a prototype system based on the consortium blockchain. The solution divides the contract signing process into four states: contract upload, initiation signing, verification signing, and confirm signing. The signing process is mapped with the blockchain-linked data. Users initiate the signature transaction by signing the uploaded contract's hash. The sign state transition is triggered when the transaction is uploaded to the blockchain under the consensus mechanism and the smart contract control, which effectively ensures the integrity of the electronic contract and the non-repudiation of the electronic signature. Finally, the blockchain performance test shows that the system can be applied to the business scenario of contract signing.
Blockchain technology has been utilized in many business cases due to its capability for the development of trustless systems. There is a huge potential for building service marketplaces on top of blockchain technology as decentralized applications (dApps). In such dApps, the point is to exchange and purchase assets and record these transactions on the blockchain to improve the transparency and trust of the marketplace. This work presents a software framework and describes the software prototype implementation, which allows for the provisioning of services on a dApp. The interactions between providers and customers involved in the procurement of services traded on the marketplace are recorded on a distributed ledger. In our dApp, services are provisioned via a configurable auctioning subsystem. Furthermore, after an auction for a service is finished, a Service Level Agreement (SLA) is finalized between a provider and customer. We include a decentralized witness monitoring subsystem to detect Service Level Objective (SLO) violations on this SLA, and witnesses participating in SLA monitoring earn token rewards for their service. Finally, we demonstrate the feasibility of our prototype using state-of-the-art smart contract testing methods.
Energy consumption of consensus mechanisms used in permissionless distributed ledger, such as Bitcoin and Ethereum, has become a popular research topic. Computation and storage operations combined with proof of work (PoW) to prevent attacks requires a lot of energy consumption. Due to the permissionless nature of blockchain, it is difficult to measure the energy consumed by each node. Therefore, estimation methods provide approximations such as lower and upper bounds on energy consumption. A recent work in this direction has shown that PoW is the most energy consuming consensus. In this context, there is a timely requirement to find solutions to optimize the energy consumption. Our proposal aims at building a typical consensus in distributed ledger with an asynchronous protocol to reduce wasted computations involved in the proof of work. For this purpose, we rely on a similarity search index to prevent double-spending attacks and reduce the difficulty mining involved in the PoW, by exploring how it influences the number of required iterations needed to solve the PoW.
Bulat Nasrulin, Martijn de Vos, Georgy Ishmaev, Johan Pouwelse
The growing number of implementations of blockchain systems stands in stark contrast with still limited research on a systematic comparison of performance characteristics of these solutions. Such research is crucial for evaluating fundamental trade-offs introduced by novel consensus protocols and their implementations. These performance limitations are commonly analyzed with ad-hoc benchmarking frameworks focused on the consensus algorithm of blockchain systems. However, comparative evaluations of design choices require macro-benchmarks for uniform and comprehensive performance evaluations of blockchains at the system level rather than performance metrics of isolated components. To address this research gap, we implement Gromit, a generic framework for analyzing blockchain systems. Gromit treats each system under test as a transaction fabric where clients issue transactions to validators. We use Gromit to conduct the largest blockchain study to date, involving seven representative systems with varying consensus models. We determine the peak performance of these systems with a synthetic workload in terms of transaction throughput and scalability and show that transaction throughput does not scale with the number of validators. We explore how robust the subjected systems are against network delays and reveal that the performance of permissoned blockchain is highly sensitive to network conditions.
Hari Kishore Chaparala, Sai Vineeth Doddala, Ahmad Showail, Abhishek Singh · 6 authors
The Non-fungible token (NFT) market has been booming with some reports estimating the surge in the market value to over 80 Billion USD in 2025. With this surge, comes the challenge of scaling NFT transactions and providing low latency responses to end-users. Exclusive layer-1 blockchains like Bitcoin and Ethereum which focus more on security and traceability are not suitable for high throughput NFT transactions of low value due to high gas fees. Layer-2 solutions can scale but have a trade-off of losing some strong decentralization and security guarantees offered by the Mainnet. In this paper, we propose LiftChain, a multi-stage NFT transaction protocol that can scale for high volume NFT transactions and at the same time inherit the security guarantees from Mainnet. LiftChain differs from existing NFT transaction protocols in that it allows multiple NFT transactions in the off-chain before becoming consistent with the on-chain. LiftChain also uses batching for gas fee savings and better bandwidth utilization. Our evaluations show that LiftChain provides comparable performance to baseline off-chain and with batching we see more than a 5-fold improvement in gas fee savings.
Caixiang Fan, Changyuan Lin, Hamzeh Khazaei, Petr Musı́lek
In this work, we present a set of comprehensive experimental studies on Hyperledger Besu in private blockchain. We aim to exhibit its performance characteristics in terms of transaction throughput, latency, resource utilization, and scalability, from the application perspective by adding a load balancer middleware. We have carefully designed a set of comparative experiments and judiciously selected typical parameters, including transaction send rate, network size, node flavor, load balancing, consensus, and block time. In particular, three proof of authority consensus algorithms, Clique, IBFT 2.0, and QBFT, are investigated. Through extensive experimental evaluations using the Hyperledger Caliper benchmark tool, we analyze how these parameters impact the performance of a private Besu blockchain. Our studies reveal several interesting findings: 1) Blockchain parameters, e.g., block time and block size, are the most significant factors in determining Besu performance; 2) The performance of Besu is bottlenecked by transaction execution and blockchain state updates, which are determined by parameters such as node computation power, transaction complexity, and load balancing; 3) A Besu network with QBFT consensus can scale up to 14 validators without noticeable performance loss. Our findings shed some light on further performance improvement of Hyperledger Besu. The identified bottlenecks and root cause analysis provide insightful suggestions for blockchain practitioners to build performant enterprise applications.
Mariano Basile, Giovanni Nardini, Pericle Perazzo, Gianluca Dini
Fourteen years after its inception, the Bitcoin market capitalization exceeds $700 trillion. As Bitcoin blockchain continues gaining tremendous interest, it is vital evaluating Bitcoin protocol performance. In this context, the BlockSim simulation framework is among the current state-of-the-art tools. Despite that, the BlockSim model of the Bitcoin protocol shows two main limitations: i) at the consensus layer, the model does not account for Segregated Witness (SegWit) upgrade, which sensibly improves the Bitcoin throughput; and ii) at the network layer, the simulated block propagation process is oversimplified. Those limitations affect several blockchain performance metrics, like throughput, orphan block rate and mining reward per block. In this work we improve the existing BlockSim model of the Bitcoin protocol. Namely, we introduce SegWit support, and we update the simulated block propagation process. Block propagation delay is now estimated via linear regression on a per-simulated-block basis. We also extensively validate the proposed model within the light simulation technique of BlockSim. The results show that the model correctly simulates the current Bitcoin blockchain. As to the full simulation technique of BlockSim, it actually turns out to be so inefficient to be unpractical. We experimentally prove the performance limitations of the full technique, thereby confirming the original claims regarding its inefficiency. Yet, we provide suggestions to improve execution time and memory footprint, corroborated by profiling results.
Nor Ashbahani Mohamad Kajaan, Nurul Hanisa Nor Amidi, Zainal Salam, Raja Zahilah Raja Mohd Radzi
Abstract The purpose of this study is to propose a method of peer-to-peer (P2P) energy trading that allow prosumers with energy deficiency to buy energy from prosumers with excess energy in a microgrid system. The proposed method solves the problems associated with lack of trust in P2P energy trading and utilized the blockchain technology that made it impossible to tamper with data. The data is referred as transaction generated by using blockchain. A blockchain based smart contract execute the trading and payment rules without the intermediaries. Thus, the security and fairness of energy trading are significantly enhanced compared to conventional database technology. Without the third-party intervention, a miner that is selected among the participants in the microgrid environment process all the transaction generated from buying and selling energy. The smart contract consists of two main components; bidding and settlement module, payment module. The smart contract deployed in blockchain test network to test the interaction of smart contract. From the simulation, the proposed method is validated using realistic data with the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM). The method will be expected to be useful to designers who need to integrate renewable energy in a microgrid system.
Blockchain has been recognized as a promising solution to construct a tamper-proof and trust-free decentralized framework for Internet of Things (loT) systems. However, directly applying cryptocurrency-oriented blockchains in loT networks still meets tremendous limitations. Proof-of-Work (PoW) consensus protocol enables a blockchain to achieve pseudonymity, scalability and probabilistic finality in an asynchronous and open-access network environment. The compute-intensive PoW favors nodes possessing more computing power, but fairness is an important requirement in highly heterogeneous loT networks. A blockchain designed for loT edge environments must consider devices with various constraints on computation power. This paper proposes Fairledger, a fair Proof-of-Sequential-Work (PoSW) based lightweight distributed ledger for small-scale, permissioned loT networks. By combining efficient verifiable delay function (eVDF) and Proof-of-Credit (PoC) puzzle, PoSW consensus protocol guarantees fairness by requiring all the miners perform a fixed sequential computing steps to represent PoW for block generation despite their hardware resources. Due to the virtual mining manner of PoSW, Fairledger demonstrates computing efficiency compared to traditional PoW blockchains. In addition, Fairledger is less susceptible to “long-range” and “nothing-at-stake” attacks than Proof-of-Stake (PoS) protocols are. A proof-of-concept prototype is implemented, and the experimental results verify the feasibility of running Fairledger in a physical loT network with higher throughput, less computation and communication cost, and better security guarantees.
Gary Hahn, Aaron Werth, Emilio C. Piesciorovsky, William Monday · 7 authors
This report summarizes the design and pilot demonstration of a framework called Grid Guard that was created to provide increased data and device trustworthiness to electric grid devices by leveraging distributed ledger technology (DLT), specifically blockchain. Grid Guard contains a combination of core cryptographic methods such as the secure hash algorithm (SHA), and asymmetric cryptography, private permissioned blockchain, baselining configuration data, consensus algorithm (Raft) and the Hyperledger Fabric (HLF) framework. The system implements a low energy, fast, and robust enhancement to system trustworthiness within and across electric grid systems such as substations, control centers and metering infrastructures.Blockchain is a distributed database structured that provides a practically unalterable (immutable) timeline of stored transactions. By relying on hashing and the Raft consensus algorithm, if an entity tries to illegitimately alter a record at one instance of the database the other ledger nodes are not altered. They work to cross-reference each other and easily locate any incorrectly added data and remove it. The bulk raw data is stored in an off-chain storage (outside of the blockchain ledger) and a hash of this baseline data is stored in the Blockchain ledger via hashing windows of time-series and configuration data, after aggregation and filtering. The bulk off-chain data repository is then considered to be trust-anchored using the hashes stored in the blockchain. To secure the electric grid testbed devices and data, device configuration baselines were compared to those baselines that had been previously stored in the ledger. Statistical baselines for device configurations, network communication patterns, and high-speed sensor data are calculated and then stored off-chain and hashes stored in the ledger. Measurements such as three-phase voltage and current, frequency, breaker status, protection scheme settings, network configuration settings (and other device configuration artifacts) and network traffic features (packet interarrival times) are compared every minute or other selected time windows.During phase 1 of the Grid Guard DLT project different DLT technologies were studies, and an assessment was performed on DLT technology vulnerabilities, uses, and key characteristics. DLT consensus protocols were studies (e.g., RAFT, named after Reliable, Replicated, Redundant, And Fault-Tolerant). Also, cryptography, public, private and permissioned or permissionless systems were assessed. Grid Guard implements a permissioned private DLT. Consensus algorithm selection and choice of DLT implementation depended heavily on the use-case. For this use-case, parameters were selected to measure performance and existing tools for assessment. Benchmarking was performed theoretically and practically. During phase 2 hashed transactions/blocks were inserted into the ledger every second.During phase 2 of the Grid Guard DLT project, a prototype framework was developed and demonstrated for attestation of critical substation devices and data using precision timing systems that use PTP and IRIG-B protocols) on a testbed of operational devices that emulated a distribution substation, control center, and power metering infrastructure using real Operational Technology (OT). The testbed includes OT devices such as protective relays, human machine interfaces (HMI), and power meters. To determine when to collect and compare system and network baselines, an initial examination of an anomaly detection capability to identify malicious manipulation of data streams was conducted. The resulting anomaly detection was demonstrated in a set of experiments and leveraged to trigger device artifact attestation checks. Attestation checks occur against device configuration baselines when compared with the immutable blockchain-stored baselines, which provided a cryptographically supported means by which to store baselines.The electrical substation-grid testbed was created to test the Grid Guard framework. The testbed emulates the operations of a portion of a power grid and SCADA systems as closely as possible. The testbed integrates real protocols, mainly IEC 61850 standard protocols, such as the Sampled Value (SV) and the GOOSE protocols. The testbed also supports DNP3 and other layer 2 and layer 3 protocols such as Telnet, SSH, SFTP/FTP and other proprietary protocols needed to connect to industrial control system equipment. The testbed emulates real power conditions using the OpalRT hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) device which can create fault situations that cannot be easily tested on real systems. The electrical substation-grid testbed was created using real measurement, communication, and protection devices that electrical utilities commonly use. The goal is to have the same conditions that could be observed in an operational power grid or electrical substation. The objective was to study the impact of faults and cyber-events at an
Microgrid research and construction effectively use distributed energy resources to stimulate clean energy devel-opment. Peer-to-peer (P2P) energy trading in microgrids helps create a fully competitive and autonomous energy trading market. Blockchain technology is employed to realize a P2P energy trading framework. However, while public blockchain is generally transparent, energy trading information is sensitive and thus requires a privacy-preserving mechanism. In this paper, we design a privacy-preserving energy trading mechanism by using blockchain and zero-knowledge proofs. A user uploads a commitment to the blockchain instead of the original bid amount, and the zero-knowledge proof of commitment is uploaded into the blockchain. Other participants can verify the correctness of energy trading in each auction match. Our experiments show the design is feasible and efficient in Ethereum although there are more gas consumptions.
Hongwei Zhang, Marzia Zaman, Brian Stacey, Srinivas Sampalli
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) consist of many wireless sensor nodes for collecting and sensing information. Distributed Ledger Technologies (DLTs) such as Blockchain allow organizations to store and share data in a decentralized, immutable, and secure way through a network of distributed peer-to-peer users or computers. The application of DLT to the Internet of Things (IoT) can improve the efficiency of information transmission and network security. IOTA Tangle is a DLT developed for IoT to process transactions. WSN is a core technology for IoT, and the two have a lot in common in terms of applications. Many solutions for IoT applications can be implemented with WSNs. However, the sensor nodes in WSNs have limited processing speed, storage capacity, communication bandwidth, and energy consumption capabilities. Therefore, a lightweight solution needs to be designed according to the characteristics of WSNs, rather than directly applying Tangle. The similarities between IoT and WSNs determine that the Tangle can be an essential reference for designing new solutions. In this paper, we propose a new DLT structure based on Tangle named Fishing Net Topology (FNT). The aim is to meet the lightweight requirements of sensor nodes in WSNs. We compared FNT with Tangle in terms of the packet network structure and algorithm and also experimentally analyzed the waste rate in the FNT network. It is concluded that FNT can be used at a reasonable Rate based on the requirement of the WSN applications, and it can significantly reduce the computation while enhancing the security of WSNs. Due to its structural stability and algorithmic simplicity, FNT outperforms Tangle in WSNs.
Blockchain is a distributed ledger that combines technologies such as cryptography, consensus mechanism, peer-to-peer transmission, and time stamping. The rapid development of blockchain has attracted attention from all walks of life, but storage scalability issues have hindered the application of blockchain. In this paper, a scalable blockchain storage model based on Distributed Hash Table (DHT) and the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) was proposed. This paper introduces the current research status of the scalable blockchain storage model, as well as the basic principles of DHT and the InterPlanetary File System. The model construction and workflow are explained in detail. At the same time, the DHT network construction mechanism, block heat identification mechanism, new node initialization mechanism, and block data read and write mechanism in the model are described in detail. Experimental results show that this model can reduce the storage burden of nodes, and at the same time, the blockchain network can accommodate more local blocks under the same block height.
Sebastian Göndör, Hakan Yıldız, Martin Westerkamp, Axel Kuupper
Decentralized services and applications provide a multitude of advantages for their users, such as improved privacy, control, and independence from third parties. Anyhow, decentralization comes at the cost of certain disadvantages, such as increased application complexity or communication overhead. This aggravates the development and deployment of decentralized services and applications. In this paper we present Blade, a software platform that aims to ease the effort of development, deployment, and administration of decentralized services by implementing reusable solutions for recurring challenges developers are facing when designing decentralized service architectures. This includes functionality for e.g. identity management, access control, request handling, verification of authenticity and integrity, discovery, or routing. Blade implements all this functionality in a Blade server instance, which can be deployed on a lightweight device, such as a NAS, Raspberry Pi, or router at home. This allows users without expert knowledge to run a Blade instance with already existing hardware with little overhead. Blade supports polyglot Blade modules that implement extended functionality, such as interfaces, frontends, and business logic of decentralized applications, e.g. a decentralized instant messaging service or an online social network. Based on the Oracle GraalVM, Blade modules can be implemented in a variety of programming languages and utilize the functionality provided by the Blade server instance. Blade modules are published in a Ethereum-based decentralized marketplace from where they can be installed directly via the Blade instances...
John Christidis, Panagiotis Karkazis, Pericles Papadopoulos, Helen C. Leligou
In present times, the largest amount of data is being controlled in a centralized manner. However, as the data are in essence the fuel of any application and service, there is a need to make the data more findable and accessible. Another problem with the data being centralized is the limited storage as well as the uncertainty of their authenticity. In the Internet of Things (IoT) sector specifically, data are the key to develop the most powerful and reliable applications. For these reasons, there is a rise on works that present decentralized marketplaces for IoT data with many of them exploiting blockchain technology to offer security advantages. The main contribution of this work is to review the existing works on decentralized IoT data marketplaces and discuss important design aspects and options so as to guide (a) the prospective user to select the IoT data marketplace that matches their needs and (b) the potential designer of a new marketplace to make insightful decisions.
Distributed ledger technologies have opened up a wide variety of possibilities in various application sectors like Blockchain, Hashgraph, Holochain, Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) and Radix. The consensus mechanism eliminates a centralized controller from altering the “content” or how it should be recorded on a blockchain. The consensus protocol is the defining technology behind the performance of blockchain, among other important components. Many people believe that data stored in a Blockchain is and will always be safe because of its decentralization and encryption. Consensus layer aids in measuring performance of the blockchain. Consensus procedures are essential for the long-term stability of a Blockchain system. Blockchain technology is built on consensus. Consensus protocols are invented to enhance the efficiency of Blockchain while also satisfying the specific needs of different application domains. Consensus protocol increases the efficiency of the blockchain by increasing the throughput of the system. PoW, PoS, DPoS, PoET, PoA and PBFT are the protocols reviewed in this paper. In this paper, we analyze and compare the strengths and weaknesses of consensus protocols. We have considered each consensus protocol’s performance metrics like throughput, scalability, decentralization accessibility and applications for blockchain networks. This survey will offer blockchain developers and researchers a thorough perspective of current consensus protocols and will aid in the development of future protocols.
Blockchain received a vast amount of attention in recent years and is still growing. The second generation of blockchain, such as Ethereum, allows execution of almost any program in Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM), making it a global protocol for distributed applications. The code deployment and each operation performed in EVM cost the network fee called gas, which price varies and can be significant. That is why code optimization and well-chosen algorithms are crucial in programming on the blockchain. This paper evaluates the gas usage of several exact pattern matching algorithms on the Ethereum Virtual Machine. We also propose an efficient implementation of the algorithms in the Solidity/YUL language. We evaluate the gas fees of all the algorithms for different parameters (such as pattern length, alphabet size, and text size). We show a significant gas fee and execution time reduction with up to 22-fold lower gas usage and 55-fold speed-up comparing to StringUtils (a popular Solidity string library).