Blockchain Papers

Allan B. de Guzman

No abstract is available for this record.

Gang Guo

No abstract is available for this record.

Emily Hannum

As Jennifer Adams notes in her paper, a number of studies within the U.S., as well as some studies in China and other low- and middle-income countries, have begun to address the ways that communities impact schooling outcomes. The potential role played by communities in local education has strengthened with the shift toward administrative and fiscal decentralization in many developed and developing countries. Often, fiscal decentralization results in a greater reliance on community financing of schooling, which, in turn, strengthens the association between where students live and the quality of educational services they receive (Bray, 1996a, 1996b).

Emily Hannum, Meiyan Wang

No abstract is available for this record.

Lanlin Zhang

Since the endorsement of a socialist market economy in 1992 in the 14th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party, self-financing and fee-charging principles have been widely adopted, and finally legitimized in China's higher education system. However, refonns in China's post secondary education, mainly privatization and tuition fee hikes, have produced some serious controversies and concerns among students, parents, and international education researchers. This article delves into the issues of post secondary education refonn in China and brings into attention problems that occur when policies are institutionalized in a centralized decentralization setting. Depuis l'adhesion a une economie de marche socialiste au 14e Congres national du Parti communiste chinois, les principes d'autofmance et de privatisation ont ete adoptes partout, et finalement legitime dans le systeme d'education tertiaire en Chine. Neanmoins, les refonnes dans le systeme d'etude post-secondaire chinois, surtout dans la privatisation et dans la hausse des frais de scolarite, ont provoque de serieuses controverses et des soucis chez les etudiants, parents, et chercheurs intemationaux sur l'enseignement. Cet article etudie les problemes de reforme au niveau post-secondaire en Chine et attire l'attention sur les problemes qui surviennent lorsque les politiques se font institutionnalisees dans un milieu de decentralisation centralisee.

Authors unavailable

One of the most fascinating developments in post-communist education is the emergence of private schools and reform movements at every level of schooling. Ideologies in support of private education resonate with the liberal, marketoriented philosophies prevailing in the region; the policies of private schools promote and legitimate antistate rhetoric and echo the themes of renewal and transformation heard in other policy realms. Virtually every institution favours democratization and decentralization; the monopoly of the state over the provision of goods and services must be broken. Rigid educational hierarchies must be replaced with schools and teachers who are more responsive to the needs of individual parents and children. The curriculum needs to be completely overhauled; all traces of ideological indoctrination must be expunged. The organization and financing of schools should be lodged in democratically organized community groups; schools should be controlled by the families who can best monitor the education their children receive. Schools must be liberated not only from communist doctrine but from the state as a whole; a free market for schooling should replace state control. These themes lead directly to the assumption that the only workable strategy for eradicating state control of education is to establish new, independent private schools under the control of parents’ groups.

Huimin Li

China is one of the countries that can carry out successfully financial division of powers. Compulsory education carry out division of powers either. However, our country enormous compulsory education is undertaken by countries or villages' finance. It may be called Try to put out a burning cartload of faggots with a cup of water-an utterly inadequate measure. That children are not go to school is very common in poor rural areas. From this we can draw a conclusion that excessive division of powers in compulsory educational system is restricting the development of Chinese compulsory education.

Mark Gradstein, Moshe Justman, Volker Meier

The dominant role played by the state in the financing, regulation, and provision of primary and secondary education reflects the widely-held belief that education is necessary for personal and societal well-being. The economic organization of education depends on political as well as market mechanisms to resolve issues that arise because of contrasting views on such matters as income inequality, social mobility, and diversity. This book provides the theoretical framework necessary for understanding the political economy of education -- the complex relationship of education, economic growth, and income distribution -- and for formulating effective policies to improve the financing and provision of education. The relatively simple models developed illustrate the use of analytical tools for understanding central policy issues. After offering a historical overview of the development of public education and a review of current econometric evidence on education, growth, and income distribution, the authors lay the theoretical groundwork for the main body of analysis. First they develop a basic static model of how political decisions determine education spending; then they extend this model dynamically. Applying this framework to a comparison of education financing under different regimes, the authors explore fiscal decentralization; individual choice between public and private schooling, including the use of education vouchers to combine public financing of education with private provision; and the social dimension of education -- its role in state-building, the traditional "melting pot" that promotes cohesion in a culturally diverse society.

Lun King Ngok, Kin Keung Chan David

No abstract is available for this record.

Chengzhi Wang, Mary Bergquist

Basic education (primary and junior secondary schooling) in China has experienced phenomenal development in the reform era from the late 1970s. The most important reform policies; namely, decentralization of governance and diversification of finance, have been translated into an unprecedented scale of resource mobilization for schooling expansion. This article examines China’s education finance reform and basic education development. It analyzes international aid and assistance, particularly major basic education projects financed by the World Bank and other international organizations. The article argues that China is not necessarily “in the driving seat” in cooperation with the World Bank, and that the bank does not play purely “a pivotal positive role” in helping develop Chinese basic education. In spite of its huge aid and assistance in China, the bank, to a certain extent, also contributes to the formation of China’s bifurcated schooling system.

Yan Ding

The financial reform of compulsory education in China since 1985 was characterized by fiscal decentralization and resource diversification. It has brought important benefits but did contribute to growing disparities in the quality of education across regions and to inadequate public financing of education in poor areas. This suggests that in the future, more effort needs to be put into the establishment and development of a substantial and regularized scheme of intergovernmental grants. This study, based on 1997 and 1999 county level data, attempts to document the utilization of education resources and disparities in per student spending in late 1990s. Then the study goes further to review the international experience regarding the role of intergovernmental grants in a decentralized system of financing, and finally examines the issues involved in establishing a regularized and substantial system of intergovernmental grants in compulsory education in China.

윤홍주

No abstract is available for this record.

Kinglun Ngok, Julia Kwong

We live in a global age. ‘Promoted by unrestricted mobility of capital and the unfettered freedom of trade’ (Gray, 1998, pp. 6–7), economic globalization has been a significant trend in our times. The process of globalization has not only internationalized the movement of capital and information, but also has affected the approaches individual nation states use to pursue their economic and social policies. With the rise of economic globalization, accompanied by the collapse of communism and the collectivist ideology, the values of free market capitalism prevail. The processes of decentralization and marketization can be detected even in the social service sectors in many countries (Bray, 1999). Similarly, the financing, curriculum, governance and management of education have been re-oriented and re-shaped by market-oriented approaches and practices (Currie and Newson, 1998; Spring, 1998; Taylor et al. , 1997). This tidal wave has also spilled over into China with the adoption of reform and open-door policies in 1978. These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

Ka‐Ho Mok

Abstract Unlike the Mao era when educational development was entirely directed by the central government, there has been a strong trend to diversification and decentralization of education in the post‐Mao period. This article, being set in this context, examines how the policy of decentralization has affected the governance modes of higher education in Mainland China. More specifically, the article focuses on three major aspects of education governance, namely, financing, provision and regulation in education, with special attention given to examining the changing relations between the state, local governments and other agents in education delivery. One very significant consequence of the change is that the public‐good functions of education, of which the state has taken the primary role of a reliable guarantor, have diminished. Nonetheless, the state's role as a regulator and overall service coordinator has been strengthened rather than weakened under the policy of decentralization. These recent developments in China's higher education also reflect the global trend of decentralization in educational governance. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

晃一 山下

No abstract is available for this record.

Jan Herczyński

We analyze the governance structure and the financing of Kyrgyz education, with special emphasis on the general secondary education system. General secondary schools are under the authority of oblasts and rayons. Our main findings are as follows: 1. The oblast and rayon authorities in Kyrgyzstan are in fact delegated offices of the central administration, with highly non-transparent reporting lines, very little budgetary independence, diffused political responsibility and politicized control over financial flows to lower levels of government. 2. The principle that funds from the central budget for specific functions should be transferred directly (without any intermediaries) to the level of government responsible for those functions is not observed in Kyrgyzstan. In particular, the categorical grants for education are determined and negotiated in a very non-transparent way. 3. The Kyrgyz education sector is fragmented, and the divided responsibilities for management and for finances make rationalization and reform very difficult to accomplish. Moreover, the situation is compounded by the fact that education decentralization has a formal character, and is not accompanied by real delegation of authority and responsibility. 4. The general secondary education system in Kyrgyzstan, although managed according to the rules and procedures common to other post Soviet republics, displays a remarkable degree of regional and ethnic differentiation. The financing levels also vary significantly among oblasts. 5. Parental contributions make up at least 30% of the school budgets in Bishkek. Their collection and use vary greatly among schools, but in all cases are beyond the effective control of either parents or the central and local authorities. Moreover, the emerging system of entrance fees for first grade students is unconstitutional and violates human rights and pedagogical principles. In order to deal with these issues, the Kyrgyz Republic needs to correct the present non-transparent and dysfunctional governance structure of Kyrgyz education, because otherwise any efforts to improve the delivery of educational services or their financing may remain ineffective. The Kyrgyz Republic also needs to define education standards that it will be able to enforce and finance in all schools. Finally, it needs to implement a regulatory system governing parental contributions, which would serve the schools and at the same time allow for transparent and well-monitored use of private funds in public schools.

Wang Xin

This policy review examines major government policies and reforms regarding higher education development in three distinct periods, and analyzes their impact on financing higher education in China. The analysis reveals that with the expansion of enrollments, declining funding from central government, increasing demand for greater quality and efficiency, and ascendance of market orientations and solutions, a new mechanism of administration and financing has emerged to adapt Chinese colleges and universities to change. The study describes four trends in higher education financing in China: (1) decentralization - shifting financing higher education from state government to provincial governments; (2) diversification of financing - supporting higher education with income from university enterprises, contract training for enterprises, contract research and consultancy, and donations and endowments; (3) cost sharing - sharing cost of higher education with students, parents, and other social sectors; and (4) optimization - increasing efficiency through consolidations and mergers among institutions. These reform attempts are parallel to the worldwide trends in the financing of higher education described by Johnstone. Results show that the financing mechanism of higher education has evolved to meet demands imposed by the changing political and social environment.

John N. Hawkins

China’s educational leaders have long debated the pluses and minuses of decentralization of control and resources of China’s vast educational enterprise. During various periods of post‐1949 China, the central authorities have devolved control to the provinces, key cities, and rural communes, only to recentralize later usually due to political reforms. In this chapter various stages of the educational reform movement begun in 1985 will be considered and we will focus on what motivated the reforms in the context of China’s unique political culture. Some specific features of educational decentralization will be examined such as finance, curriculum and management. We conclude that while the current leadership appears to be committed to decentralization, they remain conflicted over the need to maintain control while at the same time respond creatively to the needs of the new market economy.

Ka-Ho Mok

Recent comparative education policy studies show that even though there seems to be similar patterns and trends in higher education reforms in East Asian societies, the recently initiated higher education reforms have had very diverse agendas. Thus, the considerable convergence of policy rhetoric and general policy objectives may not satisfactorily explain the complicated processes of changes and the dynamic interactions between global, regional and local forces that shape education policy-making in individual countries. This article discusses globalization effects on national policy, with particular reference to how the higher education sector in Taiwan has transformed itself under the global tide of marketization and decentralization. There are a lot of changes similar to both higher education in Taiwan and that of elsewhere, which suggests that Taiwan's higher education has been affected by the trends of globalization. But before we jump to this conclusion, maybe we should also bear in mind an alternative hypothesis that local factors are crucial and determining factors for change. The core of the article is to examine the ways and strategies the Taiwan Government has adopted to reform its higher education systems in response to the changing local socio-economic political context and regional-global environments, with a particular focus on provision, regulation and financing.

Meesuk Ahn

This thesis examines teachers' perceptions of the relationship between teachers and
\ngovernment in the field of curriculum development, in the light of changes in the mode of
\ncurriculum control under which teachers carry out their work in Korea and England. In
\nboth countries, major recent legislation has brought about fundamental revisions of the
\ncurriculum. In Korea, the 1992 sixth National Curriculum declared a decentralization of
\ncurriculum development, ostensibly attempting to decrease government control over
\nteachers. In England, the 1988 Education Act imposed a national curriculum: this
\nrepresented an increase in government control over teachers.
\nThe thesis begins with a review of theoretical work relating to modes of curriculum control
\nand professionalism. It then offers accounts of the historical and cultural context of
\ncurriculum development and professionalism in Korea and England, providing overviews
\nof curriculum development, teacher education relating to curriculum development,
\nteachers' organizations, hierarchies in society and schools, gender differences in the
\nteaching profession, inspection of teachers, and teachers' relations with parents.
\nA central issue for the thesis is the idea of teachers' professionalism in relation to
\ngovernment intervention in curriculum development. It is the main assumption of the study
\nthat teachers' professionalism in the field of curriculum control can be best analysed
\nthrough an examination of the context in which it is embedded. Thus, this thesis involves
\nempirical studies of structured samples of six primary schools in Korea and nine primary
\nschools in England; questionnaires, interviews and case studies were administered in both
\ncountries. These investigations focus on comparing the teachers' perceptions of curriculum
\n&-YQlppment. and professionalism in their different cultural contexts. Comparison serves
\nto improve contextual understanding of teachers' professionalism within two different
\ntrends: centralization and decentralization.
\nExamination of the empirical data reveals both similarities and differences between
\ndifferent teachers within each country, and also between teachers in the two countries.
\nOverall, Korean teachers feel that they have only a restricted role in implementing the new
\ncurriculum in their own classroom, despite the recent change which introduced some
\ndecentralization in curriculum policy.. Compared with this situation in Korea, despite
\ngovernmental intervention in curriculum development the majority of English teachers may
\nbe characterized as still having an autonomous role in implementing the curriculum.
\nAlthough there were different orientations and degrees of control among both groups of
\nteachers, the belief in the desirability of teacher control of the curriculum has been a
\ndominant perspective with widespread acceptance in the two countries.
\nThis thesis supports the view that teachers' professionalism is shaped by social, political,
\neducational and institutional cultures in a very complicated fashion, and cannot be
\nexpected to change quickly or easily. It also demonstrates that teachers' professionalism
\ncannot be conceptualized simply in terms of movement along the continuum between
\ncentralization and decentralization. The thesis argues that teachers' professionalism in
\nrelation to government intervention is affected much more by-what teachers think, which
\nis shaped in their own cultural contexts, than by the nature of the change itself as defined
\nby the legislation/Accordingly, it suggests that the strategies for enhancing teachers'
\nprofessionalism in relation to curriculum development should be considered with reference
\nto the cultural contexts within which they are practised.

Yossi Yonah

In the last two decades the Israeli educational system has undergone major changes which have transformed it from a state-controlled, overly bureaucratic and almost fully state-financed system into a decentralized, partly locally controlled and increasingly privately financed system. Advocates of this transformation of the educational system appeal to the ideal of parental choice. They argue that the implementation of parental choice programs in education shows more respect to the children and their unique talents, take their self-realization seriously and promotes equal opportunities in education. The ideal of parental choice is also upheld in relation to value of cultural pluralism. Supporters of educational autonomy advocate the restructuring of schools in a way allow­ ing them to develop a unique climate and curriculum consistent with respective communities and parents' preferences. The aim of this paper is to assess critically the changes that Israeli educational system has undergone against the background of the principle of equal educational opportunities. The main claim of the paper is that these changes undermine this principle. It will be argued that these changes actually cater mainly to the educational interests of middle and upper middle classes in Israeli society.

Abby Riddell

No abstract is available for this record.

Hideaki Arai

No abstract is available for this record.

Mun C. Tsang

No abstract is available for this record.