Fengyin Li, Li Xiao, Peiyu Liu, Xueqing Sun · 6 authors
Blockchain gives a new method for distributed data ledgering. The smart grid obtains efficient two-way data transmission and information control. It effectively monitors and regulates the grid by collecting real-time electricity consumption data of users. However, online data collection brings privacy leakage. To solve the problem of privacy leakage in the electricity data collection in the smart grid, a privacy-aware electricity data collection model is proposed. Firstly, we propose a new group blind signature scheme by introducing the blind feature into the identity-based encryption method. Secondly, by applying the proposed group blind signature scheme to the electricity data collection process, we propose a privacy-aware electricity data collection model. The proposed model ensures the conditional anonymity and traceability of user identity and the privacy protection and unforgeability of electricity consumption data.
Rana Faisal Hayat, Sana Aurangzeb, Muhammad Aleem, Gautam Srivastava · 5 authors
Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks as well as botnet-based attacks are among the most important security vulnerabilities in Internet of Things (IoT) environments. Most of the existing research approaches use centralized defense mechanisms to prevent DDoS attacks in IoT environments. However, it is important to provide a reliable and scalable solution to prevent DDoS attacks. Combining technologies such as distributed blockchain-based mechanisms and smart contracts facilitates the construction of a trusted distributed framework that can defend against DDoS attacks in IoT. In this article, we have proposed a multilevel DDoS mitigation approach (ML-DDoS) to protect IoT devices and other computing resources or machines using the blockchain-based framework. The core concept of the proposed system is to use a device-based verification mechanism using blockchain and exclude malicious devices from IoT environments. The proposed framework was developed using Hyperledger Caliper (a blockchain benchmark tool) and its performance was evaluated using three benchmark applications. Compared to the state of the art, the results show that the proposed framework achieves up to 35% improvement in throughput, up to 40% improvement in latency, and up to 25% better utilization of CPU.
Mehran Hajiaghapour‐Moghimi, Kamyar Azimi Hosseini, Ehsan Hajipour, Mehdi Vakilian
By privatization and deregulation, distribution transformers have gradually been pushed further into their operating limits. Under these circumstances, in countries with cheap or subsidized electricity price, the introduction of profitable cryptocurrencies application is deeply penetrated. It has attracted many low-voltage customers to mine these digital currencies individually or in mining pools. The employed mining devices with their own unique constant load profile have escalated the coincident factor of the loads supplied by a transformer. This can highly overload the transformers engaged with loads of this type and, in the long term will cause destructive impacts not only on the transformer also on the distribution facilities. This paper studies the adverse effect of cryptocurrency mining loads on the distribution transformer aging. At first, the customer's profit analysis through mining operation has been introduced, realizing different electric energy pricing strategies. Finally, 105 real-world distribution substations have been monitored over one year, and their actual load profiles data are recorded for analysis. A relation between the penetration rate of the mining devices and the transformer's expected lifetime is determined in this work. It is shown that the distribution transformers' expected lifetime will decrease by 25% in the presence of only a 5% penetration rate of cryptocurrency miners. This is an alarming statistic for distribution networks operating under the presence of cryptocurrency mining loads. This should be strictly addressed in the future planning of these distribution networks.
Mikko Nykyri, Tommi J. Kärkkäinen, Saku Levikari, Samuli Honkapuro · 6 authors
Sharing local co-owned photovoltaic (PV) energy in multifamily residential buildings is inefficient. Energy produced and consumed within the same building may be considered purchased energy, of which the customer must pay the purchase price, the network service fee, and taxes. As PV typically does not allow self-sufficiency in the Nordic countries, a distribution system operator is needed to provide the grid connection. Earlier solutions to this problem are focused on energy communities where an energy aggregator is responsible for the energy balance settlement. However, this does not allow the energy community members to remain in the open electricity market. This paper introduces a blockchain-based balance settlement ledger and a set of rules for energy sharing in energy communities where members participate in the open electricity market while supplied with local low-cost PV energy. This, to the authors’ knowledge, has not been previously implemented. The blockchain mitigates the need for any central entity for balance settlement and ensures fair sharing of PV energy. The existing smart meters can be used so no investments are required. The system performance is tested with simulations which show potential for increase in profitability. The self-sufficiency rate increases in our test scenario from 4.03% to 9.61%.
<p> Power systems are undergoing rapid transitions to incorporate renewable sources of generation and to combat climate change. Next stage of transitions will lead to a shift from large-scale, centralized systems to networks of smallsized, distributed electricity systems which require distributed or decentralized ledgers for database management for efficient transactions. Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) are a form of decentralized ledgers where the transactions (energy, information and money) among various entities are maintained. One such DLT is blockchain technology which offers several advantages. Data recorded in blockchains are difficult to tamper with; have privacy protection; facilitate fast, accurate and real-time settlement of financial transactions. Contemporary research has started focusing on their possible applications in energy systems. State-of-the-art suggests that while business and market aspects have been extensively discussed, the electrical constraints and implementation methodologies have not been adequately addressed. Furthermore, all the reviewed projects have implemented only peer-to-peer transactions that are not scalable. To incorporate the new entities like prosumers, intermicrogrid transactions and interactions with the legacy power grid, new structural and operational frameworks are necessary. The proposed research explores the possibility of developing blockchain enabled smart microgrids (BSMG) with the above frameworks. It aims to build a conceptual framework of BSMG, including the transaction protocols and process flows. It proposes inclusion of network constraints in a three-levelled transaction setup which is executed over a four-layered architecture. Another practical challenge is that BSMGs may be set up on different blockchain platforms. Hence, this paper also proposes implementing Inter-Blockchain Protocol for the first time to include interoperability and communication between different platforms. Finally the performance metrics that will be used to validate the BSMGs are outlined. </p>
D. Jonathan Sebastian-Cardenas, Sri Nikhil Gupta Gourisetti, Annabelle Lee, Michael Mylrea · 5 authors
Transactive Energy Systems (TES) are expected to improve upon existing grid operations and capabilities by enabling the integration of traditional grid resources with distributed energy resources (DER). Distributed Ledger Technology or DLT (e.g., blockchain) presents itself as a viable instrument to support decentralized, autonomous, and tamper-evident applications, which can be leveraged within TES’s ecosystem. DLTs can provide pertinent security controls including access controls, data immutability, and traceability in addition to other well-known advantages such as decentralization and scalability. This work demonstrates the DLT cybersecurity stack and its applicability to TES-based use-cases/applications. The seven-layer DLT cybersecurity stack is a DLT-agnostic framework that can quickly be used to classify and group the individual needs of an application into the different processing and cybersecurity layers offered by a DLT using a common taxonomy and an architectural mapping framework. This enables application engineers to demystify and strengthen the overall security aspects of their systems while maintaining an open perspective towards features and drawbacks that may hinder their performance in real-world scenarios. The paper leverages the work performed by the IEEE P2418.5 Blockchain for Energy Standards working group.
One of the biggest challenges for decarbonizing the grid is allowing those parties with access to distributed energy resources to provide necessary energy and market participant information in a secure manner to support grid and market operations. Multiple entities, protocols, communication networks, and devices present significant challenges for market operators responsible for data governance such as confidentiality and data integrity. One approach is managing parties within and across networked microgrids with a Distribution System Operator (DSO) responsible for facilitating a transactive energy marketplace for their customers. An identity-based cybersecurity mesh fabric using a distributed ledger for delivering edge services was recently demonstrated to ensure data from two networked microgrids and a DSO could be shared across the various systems. A system that included a private blockchain for data governance and access control services needed for these secure interactions was designed and demonstrated. This paper highlights the overall microgrid data flows and data transactions along with the implementation considerations of cybersecurity controls across already installed assets, simulated microgrids, and smart buildings.
Ümit Cali, Murat Kuzlu, James Kempf, Shammya Shananda Saha · 6 authors
Integration of distributed energy resources (DES), especially renewable energy and storage resources, into the electrical power grid has introduced new challenges such as bidirectional power flow, distributed energy markets, trust between participants, etc. As a result, it is needed to share and trade energy among participants in a trusted environment for distributed markets, either as individuals or aggregators, by negotiating based on demand, price, time of day or others. Transactive Energy Systems (TESs) provide a unique environment to engage end participants and non-traditional resources to address the grid challenges, while Blockchains provide a unique technology to address the trust problem through the use of a distributed ledger, cryptocurrencies, and the execution of smart contracts. This study explores the automation features - commonly referred to as smart contracts - of blockchain technology. This paper also aims to reflect the international industrial, academic and entrepreneurial perspectives.
Modern power systems are evolving towards decarbonization and digitalization phases leading to Transactive Energy Systems (TES). Application of technology like Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) to develop a TES is not an unheard topic of research. The joint operation of TES and DLT is providing various new opportunities and business models where smart contracts can play an enabler role to amalgamate interconnected systems like power systems and digital infrastructure and services. Furthermore, the current global environmental and political climate accentuates the need for clean energy sources combined with the need for deregulation, decentralization, decarbonization, digitalization, and democratization in the energy ecosystem. This work aims to demystify the potential of smart contracts as an enabler technology for the Digital Green Transition of the energy industry from a TES perspective. The work also explores how smart contracts can be used in various TES use cases. Furthermore, some insight into how policy, legal, and legislative requirements can impact the use of a smart contract for future energy grid is also provided.
Smart cities deploy large numbers of sensors and collect a tremendous amount of data from them. For example, Advanced Metering Infrastructures (AMIs), which consist of physical meters that collect usage data about public utilities such as power and water, are an important building block in a smart city. In a typical sensor network, the measurement devices are connected through a computer network, which exposes them to cyber attacks. Furthermore, the data is centrally managed at the operator's servers, making it vulnerable to insider threats. Our goal is to protect the integrity of data collected by large-scale sensor networks and the firmware in measurement devices from cyber attacks and insider threats. To this end, we first develop a comprehensive threat model for attacks against data and firmware integrity, which can target any of the stakeholders in the operation of the sensor network. Next, we use our threat model to analyze existing defense mechanisms, including signature checks, remote firmware attestation, anomaly detection, and blockchain-based secure logs. However, the large size of the Trusted Computing Base and a lack of scalability limit the applicability of these existing mechanisms. We propose the Feather-Light Blockchain Infrastructure (FLBI) framework to address these limitations. Our framework leverages a two-layer architecture and cryptographic threshold signature chains to support large networks of low-capacity devices such as meters and data aggregators. We have fully implemented the FLBI's end-to-end functionality on the Hyperledger Fabric and private Ethereum blockchain platforms. Our experiments show that the FLBI is able to support millions of end devices.
This document provides a clear description of the COLLABS level-2 security components. In particular, it describes fine-grained authorization for constrained environments, relying on distributed ledger technologies for exchanges between different involved mechanisms. We show how COLLABS ledger-based security modules can secure inter-device communications and enhance the trust level in inter-<br> The project COLLABS has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 871518.<br> device collaboration, on several aspects of the Smart Factory lifecycle. We describe how COLLABS ensures that all the data collected from connected objects, and all the actions are authorized following an effective security policy. This document also illustrates the main data flows with sequence diagrams, describing and visualizing processes involving each component, as well as mapping of COLLABS level-2 security components to the use case scenarios.
As the backbone of the smart grid, smart metering systems enable customers, as well as utility companies, to have access to real-time information on consumption patterns in electricity, gas, and water. From a technical standpoint, smart metering systems (1) reduce the need to verify electricity, gas, and water consumption services, (2) allow for efficient management of electricity, gas, and water consumption patterns, and (3) protect natural resources. Additionally, smart metering systems provide a number of important functions that should be performed manually, such as automatic and remote measurement of electricity, gas, and water consumption, connect or disconnect service, tampering detection, outage identification and isolation, and collecting, aggregating, and analyzing real-time information of the fundamental parameters associated with customers’ services, i.e., voltage, current, etc. Besides, considering the number of customers, there are several limitations to accessing and sharing the data between utility companies and customers, and therefore, reliable and secure communication infrastructure is needed. To resolve such issues, a conceptual and technological Blockchain-based system is developed to securely share the real-time collected data from a set of various sensors for monitoring and control of electricity, gas, and water consumption, namely the multifunctional integrated smart metering system. The proposed system takes advantage of a decentralized structure, connectivity of the Internet of Things (IoT) nodes, data privacy, and transparency and auditability. The proposed Blockchain-based smart metering system allows customers to securely monitor their actual electricity, gas, and water consumption for a specific period of time and review the full history of consumption. This leads to finding solutions to rationalize the consumption of electricity, gas, and water resources.
The evolution of smart grids (SGs) has brought about various changes in the structure of existing power grids. In this context, blockchain technology is offered an encouraging solution to overcome the issues in modern power systems. In this paper, the impacts, virtualization and applications of blockchain technology on energy systems are investigated and analyzed. The major contributions of this paper are to address the main concepts of blockchain technology related to power systems. Blockchain-based the SG management scenarios such as peer to peer (P2P) energy trading, industrial virtual power plants (VPPs) and demand response (DR) loads have been addressed and discussed. Besides, all potential challenges and opportunities of blockchain applications in the SGs are determined and discussed. As far as the authors’ knowledge, this paper is one of the few studies that deeply investigate and examine the popular applications of blockchain technology in power systems.
Pietro Ferraro, Andreas Penzkofer, Christopher King, Robert Shorten
In this article, we present a feedback approach to the design of an attack mitigation policy for directed acyclic graph (DAG)-based distributed ledgers. We develop a model to analyze the behavior of the ledger under the so-calledTips Inflation Attack, which endangers the liveness of transactions, and we design a control strategy to counteract this attack strategy. The efficacy of this approach is showcased through a theoretical analysis, in the form of two theorems about the stability properties of the ledger with and without the controller, and extensive Monte Carlo simulations of an agent-based model of the distributed ledger.
Smart grids are evolving towards intelligent electricity grid where the operation of systems is distributed and automatised. Technical solutions to achieve these future needs are proposed using blockchain with smart contracts in many studies, where smart contracts enhance automation. Fundamentally smart contracts will increase security because of their distributed nature and since it inherits the security of blockchain. However, smart contracts are software components, which have special features like the unstoppable nature of applications and may use special languages like Solidity. Our aim in this paper is to get a holistic review in the smart contract life cycle, what potential new vulnerabilities and threats will they introduce and how can they be prevented, and what smart contract specific issues programmers should focus on. We also propose a future direction to achieve more secure smart contracts in smart energy systems.
Much has changed in the power industry since the inception of commercial electrical power systems. What has not changed is the cycle of disruption and adaptation empowered by innovation. The next disruption is on the horizon and is fueled by the push to decarbonize the grid. In this article, I argue that the next disruption will be shaped by three technologies: artificial intelligence (AI), 5G networks, and distributed digital ledger (DDL). Even though historical elements in this article are drawn from the evolution of the power industry in the United States, parallels can be found elsewhere.
Yeray Mezquita, Ana Belén Gil González, A. Martı́n del Rey, Javier Prieto · 5 authors
Blockchain technology is used as a distributed ledger to store and secure data and perform transactions between entities in smart grids. This paper proposes a platform based on blockchain technology and the multi-agent system paradigm to allow for the creation of an automated peer-to-peer electricity market in micro-grids. The use of a permissioned blockchain network has multiple benefits as it reduces transaction costs and enables micro-transactions. Moreover, an improvement in security is obtained, eliminating the single point of failure in the control and management of the platform along with creating the possibility to trace back the actions of the participants and a mechanism of identification. Furthermore, it provides the opportunity to create a decentralized and democratic energy market while complying with the current legislation and regulations on user privacy and data protection by incorporating Zero-Knowledge Proof protocols and ring signatures.
Abbas Yazdinejad, Ali Dehghantanha, Reza M. Parizi, Mohammad Hammoudeh · 6 authors
Nowadays, blockchain-based technologies are being developed in various industries to improve data security. In the context of the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), a chain-based network is one of the most notable applications of blockchain technology. IIoT devices have become increasingly prevalent in our digital world, especially in support of developing smart factories. Although blockchain is a powerful tool, it is vulnerable to cyber attacks. Detecting anomalies in blockchain-based IIoT networks in smart factories is crucial in protecting networks and systems from unexpected attacks. In this paper, we use Federated Learning (FL) to build a threat hunting framework called Block Hunter to automatically hunt for attacks in blockchain-based IIoT networks. Block Hunter utilizes a cluster-based architecture for anomaly detection combined with several machine learning models in a federated environment. To the best of our knowledge, Block Hunter is the first federated threat hunting model in IIoT networks that identifies anomalous behavior while preserving privacy. Our results prove the efficiency of the Block Hunter in detecting anomalous activities with high accuracy and minimum required bandwidth.
In smart grids, the access verification of a large number of intelligent gateways and terminal devices has become one of the main concerns to ensure system security. This means that smart grids need a new key management method that is safe and efficient and has a low computational cost. Although a large number of scholars have conducted relevant research, most of these schemes cannot balance the computational overhead and security. Therefore, we propose a lightweight and secure key management method, having a low computational overhead, based on blockchain for smart grids. Firstly, we redesigned the architecture of the smart grid based on blockchain and completed the division of various entities. Furthermore, we designed a pairing-free certification authenticated group key agreement method based on blockchain under the architecture. Finally, we achieved higher security attributes, and lower authentication delay and computational overhead, compared to the traditional schemes, as shown in performance analysis and comparison.
Open access
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
Smart Grid Security and Resilience
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
Bin Li, Yang Fan, Bing Qi, Xuefeng Bai · 6 authors
Abstract It is a critical part of increasing renewable energy accommodation by using virtual power plant (VPP) to attain carbon neutrality. However, VPP applications primarily consider VPP's participation in power market transactions as a whole and rarely consider the transaction interaction between internal resources. VPP's internal resources complement each other organically, and blockchain technology for distributed transactions has incorporated points. In this article, the authors undertake a study and examine the P2P scenario of VPP internal transactions in light of the issues experienced by DERs transactions. Next, the authors analyse the consensus mechanism, smart contract, inter‐blockchain technology, and game theory, and how to apply them in the P2P scenarios of VPP internal transactions. Further, the authors design the function of the DER transaction system, which lays the foundation for the realisation of the system in the future. Finally, the authors conclude that the potential of blockchain technology in P2P transactions between internal entities of the VPP is significant and warrants further investigation.
Shi Quan-sheng, Yi‐xu Hao, Hongbo Ren, Xiao‐hui Huang
Problems of the current electricity transaction include high maintenance costs, low transaction efficiency, and insufficient security. A possible solution should be proposed tentatively with a blockchain-based transaction model for distributed electricity. This paper attempts to build a decentralized electricity trading scenario within the electricity trading model by introducing blockchain technology, combining the reliability coefficient with both the smart contract and credit value mechanism. Finally, the reliability coefficient and the credit value are introduced into the simulated electricity transaction. The results show that the transaction verification time of the traditional electricity transaction model is 410 seconds at the highest and 330 seconds at the lowest. Meanwhile, the transaction verification time of the blockchain-based distributed power transaction model is 410 seconds at the highest and 300 seconds at the lowest, which means the blockchain-based distributed power transaction has a lower transaction verification time and more efficiency, effectively suppressing the frequency of defaults, reducing the risk of being attacked, and enhancing security.
The digitalization of the power grid and advancement in intelligent technologies have enabled the service provider to convert the existing electrical grid into a smart grid. The transformation of the grid will help in integrating cleaner energy technologies with energy management to improve power network efficiency. Internet of things (IoT) and various network components need to be deployed to harness the full potential of the smart grid. Also, integrating intermittent renewable energy sources, energy storage, intelligent control of selected power-intensive loads, etc will improve energy efficiency. But deployment of this information and communication technologies will make the grid more vulnerable to cyber attacks from hackers. In this work, blockchain-based self-sovereign identification and authentication technique is presented to avert identity theft and masquerading. The proposed approach can minimize the chances of identity-based security breaches in the smart grid. This paper provides an overview of the model of identification and authentication of IoT devices in Smart Grid based on Blockchain technology. The Blockchain based implementation of identification and authentication of devices is proposed to validate the model in the distributed electrical energy network. The model is able to authenticate the device using Blockchain in a trusted model. The system works according to plan validating the authenticity of transaction in a node in log(n) time, which justifies presented result.
Baoju Li, Yang Dong-mei, Yong Sun, Gang Liu · 6 authors
As a good demand-response resource with time-shifting characteristics, electric heating load (EHL) is an important means to consume renewable energy. A large number of electric heat users need an efficient and secure platform to participate in market transactions, blockchain technology is introduced to solve the mentioned issue. This paper proposes a demand response contract supported by blockchain technology for market-oriented operations involving electric heating users. First, this paper establishes a demand response model for electric heat load. Secondly, the method of day-ahead contract for electric heating load trading is proposed, it updates the response planning function according to the price, and stores the day-ahead trading results in the blockchain bill. In the real-time contract, the results are recorded to the bill according to consensus for possible power deviations, and provides a means of settlement. Finally, the calculation example verifies the validity of the proposed smart contract.