Intelligent Transport Systems (ITSs) play an important role in future smart city design to improve traffic safety and traffic congestion by sharing data collected by vehicles. For sharing the traffic data with other vehicles, the vehicular sensory data are usually uploaded to the cloud server. However, existing data sharing systems for VANETs cannot provide selective data with sufficient privacy protection. Moreover, some schemes also cannot ensure stable data accessibility and the integrity of retrieved data. On the other hand, with the improvements such as lower latency, higher capacity, and increased bandwidth, 5G technology brings more possibilities to future applications. The join of the software-defined networks (SDNs) also offers efficient and effective network management. This paper proposes a primitive vehicular communication system named blockchain-based privacy-preserving and sustainable data query service. The proposed scheme is designed to realize stable data accessibility by leveraging smart contracts and blockchain oracle. With the help of 5G technology and P2P file-sharing system, InterPlanetary File System (IPFS), the proposed scheme aims to support video downloading files with searchable capability and fairness. An incentive token mechanism is also equipped. The merit of auditability is ensured by Ethereum blockchain platform to support the accountability. Besides, we also evaluate its networking performance via SUMO and NS-3 simulators. Our simulation results show that the request-response delay of BPSDQS is less than existing blockchain-based proxy re-encryption (PRE) scheme. Our simulation results also showed that the average request-response delay in our scheme can saving up to 98%.
Yuzheng Ren, Renchao Xie, F. Richard Yu, Tao Huang · 5 authors
Advanced communication and artificial intelligence (AI) technologies facilitate the development of green smart cities. Connected and automated vehicles (CAVs) are crucial components, which are aware of the environment by collecting data from sensors and modeling through AI to realize automatic decision-making. Intelligence networking enables each CAV to train appropriate models locally to learn how to drive in different environments, which can make up for the lack of experience of single-vehicle. However, model training and intelligence networking consume a lot of energy, calling on high-energy-efficient solutions. In this paper, we propose a non-fungible token (NFT)-based green intelligence networking scheme (NGIN) for CAVs in smart cities. We use NFT to tokenize and describe intelligence by metadata, enabling applications to network intelligence efficiently, thereby reducing energy consumption. We present the architecture, modules, and efficient mechanisms of distributed intelligence networking. Moreover, we formulate the core problem as a discrete Markov decision process (MDP) and adopt the quantum-inspired reinforcement learning (QRL) algorithm to solve it. Also, the convergence rate and performance are evaluated. Simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed scheme.
Nikita Konstantinovich Chistousov, Igor A. Kalmykov, Daniil Vyacheslavovich Dukhovnyj, М. И. Калмыков · 5 authors
Authentication protocols are expanding their application scope in wireless information systems, among which are low-orbit satellite communication systems (LOSCS) for the OneWeb space Internet, automatic object identification systems using RFID, the Internet of Things, intelligent transportation systems (ITS), Vehicular Ad Hoc Network (VANET). This is due to the fact that authentication protocols effectively resist a number of attacks on wireless data transmission channels in these systems. The main disadvantage of most authentication protocols is the use of symmetric and asymmetric encryption systems to ensure high cryptographic strength. As a result, there is a problem in delivering keys to the sides of the prover and the verifier. At the same time, compromising of keys will lead to a decrease in the level of protection of the transmitted data. Zero-knowledge authentication protocols (ZKAP) are able to eliminate this disadvantage. However, most of these protocols use multiple rounds to authenticate the prover. Therefore, ZKAP, which has minimal time costs, is developed in the article. A scheme for adapting protocol parameters has been developed in this protocol to increase its efficiency. Reductions in the level of confidentiality allow us to reduce the time spent on the execution of the authentication protocol. This increases the volume of information traffic. At the same time, an increase in the confidentiality of the protocol entails an increase in the time needed for authentication of the prover, which reduces the volume of information traffic. The FPGA Artix-7 xc7a12ticsg325-1L was used to estimate the time spent implementing the adaptive ZKAP protocol. Testing was performed for 32- and 64-bit adaptive authentication protocols.
The application of vehicle ad-hoc networks (VANETs) has brought huge potential to the development of intelligent transportation systems. By traffic event reporting, traffic efficiency can be significantly improved. However, people usually lack the motivation for reporting traffic events or driving violations, because once the identity of the reporter is leaked, he or she may be tracked by malicious attackers or be retaliated by violators. However, if the reporter is anonymous, it is difficult to guarantee the accuracy and authenticity of the reports. In order to solve this contradiction, a mechanism that combines certificateless message authentication and blockchain incentives is proposed in this paper. A certificateless message signature algorithm is designed to provide the anonymity and non-repudiation for traffic-related message reporters. Simultaneously, an adaptive t-threshold multi-signature mechanism is introduced in our scheme. Similar to crowdsourcing, it requires multiple participants to witness the authenticity of the message together. Aggregation signature verification improves message authentication efficiency. A trust currency called TCoin is introduced to motivate reporters' enthusiasm for participation in intelligent transportation. The security analysis and simulation results show that our scheme is secure and effective in the intelligent transportation system.
Blockchain technology enables safe communication among users in a network of linked automobiles. Intelligent vehicle is a blockchain empowered vehicle, generally alluded to as a self-driving vehicle. This correspondence climate isn't secure and has a few issues and challenges. The significant issues on the Internet of Vehicles (IoVs) correspondence are reliability, exactness, and security. In this article, we acquaint blockchain innovation with assembling trust and dependability in shared organizations with geographies like IoVs. Further, we propose a blockchain-innovation empowered IoV use case. Blockchain innovation is utilized to fabricate a safe, confided-in climate for IoVs. This believed climate gives a protected, dispersed, and decentralized instrument for correspondence between IoVs, without sharing their data in the canny transportation framework. The omnipresence of interfacing advances in shrewd vehicles and the gradual mechanization of its functionalities guarantee critical advantages, remembering a huge decrease in blockage and street fatalities. Here we have also discuss the constraints given in the relevant literature, including the issues of blockchain technology and how they impact its incorporation into the IoV.
The Internet of Things (IoT) has developed from just an idea or concept to real-time market use-case. Automotive industry is one of the pioneers to adapt to the technology in its budding stage. They are not only focussing on the vehicle's internal features like the traditional self-driven vehicles but have developed a broader-field of view by focussing on communication with other vehicles. The exchange of large volume of data can pose a threat to the user's security. This calls for the need for implementation of multilevel cyber security countermeasures in order to prevent vulnerability to hacking. The use of blockchain has however been one the most useful and advanced technology developed to protect data, i.e., preserve user's personal information/ user's privacy (during communication). This paper mainly deals with the implementation of securing the information regarding next generation intelligent vehicles.
Daya Gupta, Arijit Karati, Walid Saad, Daniel Benevides da Costa
The so-called Internet of Vehicle (IoV) systems will interconnect numerous vehicles to communicate significant information through an Internet of Things (IoT) enabled network. It has emerged as a promising system wherein various data authentication techniques have been introduced using clumsy certificate management and Diffie-Hellman (DH) assumption. However, in the presence of quantum cryptanalysis, DH-type problems could be solved in polynomial-time. In this paper, a novel certificateless data authentication protocol is designed, enabling security features in open wireless communication in the IoV. The proposed protocol resists a quantum attack using lattice cryptography. Further, a reliable blockchain mechanism is shown to provide vehicles’ trustworthiness in batch data verification. Rigorous formal analysis shows the ability of the proposed algorithm to resist existential unforgeability against the chosen-message attack. Nonetheless, the developed protocol supports other essential security functionalities, including unlikability, conditional-traceability, anti-replay, and data authenticity. Performance analysis exhibits the simulation orchestration and shows the way the proposed protocol outperforms other related techniques in energy consumption, data computation, communication, and cryptographic key storage overheads.
Seunghwan Son, Joonyoung Lee, Yohan Park, Youngho Park · 5 authors
Connected vehicle means providing different services, such as advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) from vehicles connected to the network. Vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs) can support vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communications to realize connected vehicle. In VANETs, secure communication must be ensured, as otherwise it can lead to traffic accidents and human injuries. Recently, many studies on V2I authentication have been conducted to guarantee the security of V2I communications. However, recent V2I authentication protocols do not consider the handover situation, and it causes unnecessary computations. As vehicles have limited computing resources, unnecessary computation can lead to overload to the vehicles. In recent years, blockchain-based VANET is an active field of research because it can provide decentralization, data integrity and transparency. Using the strength of the blockchain technology, we design a blockchain-based handover authentication protocol for VANETs. In the proposed protocol, vehicles only perform lightweight computations in handover situations for efficiency of the network. We also conduct the formal analysis such as Burrows–Abadi–Needham (BAN) logic, Real-Or-Random (ROR) oracle model, and Automated Validation of Internet Security Protocols and Applications (AVISPA) simulation to the proposed protocol. We simulate the proposed protocol using network simulator 3 (NS-3) to verify that the proposed protocol is practical. Finally, we compare the computational cost and security features of the proposed protocol with existing protocols to show that the proposed protocol is more secure and efficient.
Compared with the classical structure with only one controller in software-defined networking (SDN), multi-controller topology structure in SDN provides a new type of cross-domain forwarding network architecture with multiple centralized controllers and distributed forwarding devices. However, when the network includes multiple domains, lack of trust among the controllers remains a challenge how to verify the correctness of cross-domain forwarding behaviors in different domains. In this paper, we propose a novel secure multi-controller rule enforcement verification (BlockREV) mechanism in SDN to guarantee the correctness of cross-domain forwarding. We first adopt blockchain technology to provide the immutability and privacy protection for forwarding behaviors. Furthermore, we present an address-based aggregate signature scheme with appropriate cryptographic primitives, which is provably secure in the random oracle model. Moreover, we design a verification algorithm based on hash values of forwarding paths to check the consistency of forwarding order. Finally, experimental results demonstrate that the proposed BlockREV mechanism is effective and suitable for multi-controller scenarios in SDN.
ETC systems today use technology that can be exploited to track toll users. This work develops a GPS-free toll collection that uses a zero-knowledge proof to verify V2X On-board units (OBU) in a way that prioritizes security and privacy while accommodating resource limitations of the embedded technology. Our privacy preserving ETC protocol consists of three parts: a mutual authentication handshake, a zero-knowledge proof challenge, and a verification for toll-payment processing. Bench analysis evaluates embedded systems' limitations of algorithmic operations, and field tests of challenges are conducted in a real-life scenario to show proof-of-concept among V2X interference.
Vehicular communication is a promising technology that has been announced as a main use-case of the fifth-generation cellular system (5G). Vehicle-to-everything (V2X) is the vehicular communication paradigm that enables the communications and interactions between vehicles and other network entities, e.g., road-side units (RSUs). This promising technology faces many challenges related to reliability, availability and security of the exchanged data. To this end, this work aims to solve the scientific problem of building a vehicular network architecture for reliable delivery of correct and uncompromised data within the V2X concept to improve the safety of road users, using blockchain technology and mobile edge computing (MEC). The proposed work provides a formalized mathematical model of the system, taking into account the interconnection of objects and V2X information channels and an energy-efficient offloading algorithm to manage traffic offloading to the MEC server. The main applications of the blockchain and MEC technology in the developed system are discussed. Furthermore, the developed system, with the introduced sub-systems and algorithms, was evaluated over a reliable environment, for different simulation scenarios, and the obtained results are discussed.
As the backbone of smart cities, the IoV can greatly enhance transportation effectiveness, passenger and driver safety, energy use reduction, traffic management, and pollution control. Although, the storage and communication between ubiquitous devices such as the vehicle and Road-Side-Unit (RSU) lead to multiple potential challenges, such as data tampering, data integrity, cyber attacks, and risk of leaking or falsifying information. In this work, we have proposed a permissioned blockchain framework for the IoV (i.e., SIoVChain) to overcome insecure data communication and inefficient data storage. SIoVChain registers ubiquitous devices with a node such as a blockchain node and works with transaction verification and ordering node selection processes. SIoVChain directly benefits the drivers and passengers by providing traffic information through secure communication and data integrity. We have implemented SIoVChain on the Raspberry Pi 4 platform. The experimental results demonstrate that SIoVChain surpasses conventional solutions by 50% verification delay, 50% cryptography latency, and 49% communication overhead.
Muhammad Umar Javed, Abid Jamal, Eman H. Alkhammash, Myriam Hadjouni · 6 authors
In the underlying work, the problems faced during message dissemination in the conventional Vehicular Energy Networks (VENs) like lack of security, breach of personal identities, absence of trust between vehicle owners, etc., are tackled. In this study, a Blockchain (BC) based announcement system is proposed for VENs to ensure secure and reliable announcement dissemination in the proposed network. The proposed system is a three-layered system comprising message dissemination layer, storage layer and BC layer. In the first layer, all the vehicles are registered through a Certificate Authority (CA), which ensures only the legitimate vehicles become part of the proposed network and interact with each other. Later, in the second layer, the data sent by the vehicles is stored at the artificial intelligence based Interplanetary File System (IPFS), which is incorporated with the Road Side Units (RSUs). This ensures reduction in storage cost and data availability. Besides, vehicle owners’ privacy is ensured by concealing the real identities of the vehicles. Moreover, the hashes of the data stored in the IPFS are stored in BC in the third layer. Also, lightweight trustworthiness verification of the vehicles, reputation based incentivization and concealing predictable trends in vehicles’ reputation scores are performed in the same layer. Overall, the novelty of the proposed work lies in the fact that the proposed system efficiently tackles different problems encountered in the existing systems simultaneously. Through extensive simulations, it is inferred that the computational time is reduced by 15-18% and the storage overhead is reduced by 80-85%, respectively when storing hash of data on the BC network as compared to storing actual data on the network.
The Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) technology and protocols are the main cornerstones for advanced transportation and autonomous vehicle applications. V2X has several subsets, including Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) communication contexts. The main benefit of applying V2X technologies is increased safety by facilitating predicted warnings supporting automated driving and traffic applications. Wirelessly transmitted messages are the information sources; therefore, security is critical in V2X systems. The V2X exchanged messages are sent wirelessly and must fulfill the security requirements, such as integrity, authenticity, and privacy support. The messaging between vehicles and networks must be trusted. Lately, promising and proliferating blockchain/hash chain technologies have been introduced in V2X communications and cope with the cooperative vehicular applications security and related efficiency aspects. This paper provides a comprehensive survey about the V2X use-cases based blockchain/hash chain and introduces the available solutions and methods in this domain.
Ride‐sharing services, such as ride‐hailing and carpooling, have become attractive travel patterns for worldwide users. Due to the high dynamic topology, heterogeneous wireless communication mode, and centralization, the Internet of Vehicles (IoV) is much more vulnerable to security issues such as privacy theft, single point of failure, data island, and unauthorized access, resulting in great security risks, while ride‐sharing services provide convenience. Blockchain technology used to solve the security problems of the IoV has become a current research hotspot, including authentication and privacy protection. Nevertheless, the existing algorithms still face challenges such as large amount of computation, low throughput, low scalability, consensus, and node security. Achieving an efficient, lightweight, and scalable secure blockchain–based IoV system still needs to be solved urgently. In this paper, we propose an effective consensus algorithm called Modified Proof of Reputation (MPoR). Firstly, by using the average network access time of the whole network nodes as the filtering threshold, the number of consensus nodes can be controlled adaptively. Then, a new multiweight reputation algorithm is proposed to quantify the reputation value of nodes, so as to detect and eliminate malicious nodes in the consensus node pool. Theoretical analysis and extensive simulation experiments reflect that under the IoV scenario, MPoR can adaptively select the number of consensus nodes, to effectively improve the consensus efficiency. When malicious nodes are less than 1/3 of the total nodes in the network, MPoR can effectively resist latent attack and collusive attack and has strong robustness.
Ahmed Didouh, Houda Labiod, Yassin El Hillali, Atika Rivenq
Despite the decisive contribution of intelligent transport systems in road safety, they also open new vulnerabilities to cyber-attacks, particularly vehicle position-linked attacks. For that reason, centralized systems are becoming increasingly vulnerable to the growth of the connected-vehicle fleets as it becomes more challenging to revoke certificates in real-time. We have proposed a new method that integrates a decentralized, collaborative system to meet these challenges. This method efficiently allows Blockchain integration for vehicular network’s cyber security by dynamically creating communities to revoke malicious vehicles in real-time. This article presents analytical models of the system of real-time revoking certificates and examines our solution’s impact on two important types of attacks in V2X communications, Sybil and the faking position attacks. Our experiments using real V2X hardware demonstrated the feasibility and benefits of real-time revocation via vehicle communities. The results were obtained from consensus implementation in a vehicular network comprising three communicating vehicles and a single roadside unit. In parallel, simulations showed feasibility in large-scale communications. As a result, the exposure and detection times of our solution meet real-time requirements.
Jinqi Su, Runtao Ren, Yinghao Li, Raymond Y.K. Lau · 5 authors
Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (VANETs) are the industrial cornerstone of intelligent transportation system (ITS), which are widely used in traffic management, automatic driving, and road optimization. With the expansion of the scale of the mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) and smart vehicles (SV), VANETs will produce a large amount of data. In the open access environment of VANETs, the security of information transmission and the authenticity of user identity need to be considered when different vehicles communicate. In order to solve the cybersecurity risks of large‐scale deployment of VANET, this paper proposes a trusted blockchain‐based signcryption protocol and data management (TB‐SCDM) for authentication and authorization (A&A) in VANETs. In the existing attack model, TB‐SCDM can ensure the confidentiality and undeniability of information, as well as can effectively resist 51% attacks, eclipse attacks and double‐spending attacks, etc. Through benchmark analysis, this scheme has higher computing efficiency and lower storage cost compared with other existing schemes.
A. F. M. Suaib Akhter, Mohiuddin Ahmed, Adnan Anwar, A.F.M. en Shah · 6 authors
Blockchain has been adopted in a wide range of application domains to enhance security and privacy. Vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) is an important application domain in today's communication systems where incorporation of blockchain is very timely. Recent literature highlights the prospects of blockchain technology in VANET, however, it is imperative to investigate the effectiveness to ensure viability. In this paper, a thorough investigation is conducted to identify the suitability of blockchain for VANET by identifying and answering key research issues. Unlike other existing surveys, challenges related to blockchain integration, evaluation criteria, privacy preservation, cyber security, etc. are also critically analysed. Future research directions such as 6G and large-scale deployment are also identified which need to be addressed by both VANET and blockchain community. Not only VANET, but also vehicular communication systems (VCSs) and intelligent transportation systems (ITSs) have been considered in this survey.
With the substantial increase in the number of smart cars, vehicular ad hoc network (VANET), where data can be shared between vehicles to enrich existing vehicle services and improve driving safety, is gaining more and more attention, thus creating a more efficient intelligent transportation system. Moreover, the in‐depth research and development of 6G and AI technology further strengthen the interconnection of various entities in VANET and can realize edge intelligence, which fundamentally enhances the efficiency of data sharing. However, reliable transmission and secure storage of data have always been a great challenge in data sharing. Although some schemes store shared data in the blockchain, most of the consensus mechanisms they use employ full nodes to verify signature information and timestamps, which cannot effectively judge the reliability of the shared data itself. Some other schemes use scoring mechanisms to evaluate data uploaded by vehicles, but these methods can be affected by network hardware failures and cannot effectively detect duplicate data. In addition, participants’ privacy may also be disclosed in the process of data sharing, such as participants’ location and identity information. Therefore, to address the above problems, this paper proposes a data sharing scheme in 6G‐VANET, which can not only ensure the reliability and security of shared data but also protect the privacy of participants. Firstly, a consortium chain is adopted to realize the secure storage of shared data in 6G‐VANET, which meets the requirements of tamper‐proof and traceability of data. Secondly, a voting consensus mechanism is designed in combination with smart contract to ensure the reliability of data. Thirdly, the trained word2vec natural language processing model is deployed to edge nodes to realize edge intelligence, effectively eliminate the duplicate shared data, and enhance storage efficiency. Finally, a participant privacy protection mechanism is designed using the Private Set Intersection (PSI) protocol, and a secure and efficient data sharing scheme is finally realized. The effectiveness of the proposed scheme is demonstrated by security analysis and experimental evaluation. The experimental results show that the time and space overhead of blockchain can meet the practical requirements, and the proposed PSI protocol of large‐scale vehicles can be completed in a short time.