Blockchain Papers

Pronaya Bhattacharya, Sudip K. Chatterjee, Rajan Datt, Ashwin Verma · 5 authors

No abstract is available for this record.

Patruni Muralidhara Rao, Srinivas Jangirala, P. Vidhya Saraswathi, Ashok Kumar Das · 5 authors

In V2X (vehicle-to-everything) communication, there is a two-way communication among the vehicle(s) and other Internet of Things (IoT)-enabled smart devices around it that may change how we need to drive. Due to the advancement of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) and the rapid development of IoT in transportation, traditional applications are converted to intelligent applications. In V2X communications, the collected information from the IoT smart devices and other sources passes through low-latency, high-bandwidth, high-reliability links. With the future adoption of the 5th generation mobile network (5G) and beyond networks, V2X continues to produce a huge volume of data. However, collecting and storing data securely in blockchain-based storage are extremely needed for immutability and transparency. In this survey article, the convergence of IoT, V2X and blockchain technologies, and various security challenges and their countermeasures are discussed. Next, we discuss various V2X applications and their respective services. Moreover, IoT-V2X architecture and its enabling technologies are discussed in this article. In addition, we also provide a comprehensive analysis of various security mechanisms. Finally, we provide some important challenges and issues of Blockchain for Intelligent Transportation System (BITS).

Seunghwan Son, Deokkyu Kwon, Sang-Woo Lee, Yong-Sung Jeon · 6 authors

Unmanned-aerial-vehicle (UAV)-enabled intelligent transportation system (ITS) is an advanced technology that can provide various services including autonomous driving, real-time creation of high-definition maps, and car sharing. In particular, a UAV-enabled ITS can be realized through the combination of traditional vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) and UAVs that can act as flying roadside units (RSUs) at the outskirts and monitor road conditions from predefined locations to spot car accidents and any law violations. Notably, to realize these services, real-time communication between UAVs and RSUs must be guaranteed. However, UAVs have limited computing powers, and if extensive computation is required during communication, the provision of real-time ITS services may be hindered. Furthermore, UAVs and RSUs communicate via public channels that are prone to various attacks, such as replay, impersonation, trace, and session key disclosure attacks. Thus, in this article, a secure and lightweight authentication scheme is proposed for UAVs and RSUs using the blockchain technology. The proposed scheme is analyzed using informal and formal methods including Burrows–Abadi–Nikoogadam (BAN) logic, automated validation of internet security protocols and applications (AVISPA) simulation tool, and real–or–random (RoR) model, and its performance is compared with that of related schemes. The results reveal that the proposed scheme is more efficient and secure as compared to the other competing schemes.

Yuntao Liu, Kainan Zhu, Wei Hua, Yongdong Zhu

No abstract is available for this record.

Sulaiman M. Karim, Adib Habbal, Shehzad Ashraf Chaudhry, Azeem Irshad

The Internet of Vehicles (IoV) is a network that connects vehicles and their environment: in-built devices, pedestrians, and infrastructure through the Internet using heterogeneous access technologies. During communication between vehicles, roadside units, and control rooms, data confidentiality and privacy are critical issues that require effective measures. Several works have been proposed for securing IoV environments based on vehicles-to-infrastructure authentication; However, some schemes have security vulnerabilities, while others have shown efficiency issues. Due to its decentralization, stability, and transaction tracking capabilities, Blockchain as an emerging technology presents a potential solution for IoV security. This article provides an in-depth examination of the benefits of blockchain for a 5G-based IoV environment. In particular, we propose and evaluate a novel blockchain-based secure data exchange (BSDCE-IoV) scheme based on Elliptic Curve Cryptography algorithm. Our solution is designed to eliminate several potential attacks that pose a threat to the IoV environment. Deep examination using the Real-or-Random oracle model and Scyther tool, in addition to the informal security analysis, validates the scheme regarding security and privacy. The Multi-precision Integer and Rational Arithmetic Cryptographic Library (MIRACL) assesses the computational and communication overhead. Computational and communicative overheads were also evaluated using the Multi-precision Integer and Rational Arithmetic Cryptographic Library (MIRACL). BSDCE-IoV shows higher performance in terms of security, functionality, and time delay than a number of recent selective work in IoV security.

Selman Hızal

Internet of Vehicular Things (IoVT), as a subset of the Internet of Things (IoT), enhances safety, traffic management, and driver experience by connecting vehicles and facilitating data exchange. Indeed, the implementation of IoVT comes with its fair share of challenges, which include transparent and secure service management, security, privacy preservation, and prevention of malware attacks. Researchers have proposed reputation-based systems, including blockchain-supported ones, as effective solutions to address the challenges in IoVT, offering benefits such as integrity, authenticity, transparency, and privacy preservation support. On the other hand, cryptocurrency offers several advantages, such as decentralization, enhanced security, and lower transaction costs, making it an effective form of payment that can bypass traditional intermediaries and facilitate fast and borderless transactions with greater financial privacy and control for users. In this paper, a blockchain-based reputation management system is proposed that can collect information about the surroundings from intelligent vehicles, convert that data into appropriate information, and make necessary decisions regarding reported incidents. A cryptocurrency-based recovery system allows defaulters to recover their missing points through the use of digital tokens or assets, providing them with a transparent and decentralized mechanism for restoring their lost value or reputation. The proposed method for the cryptocurrency-based recovery system is implemented and tested using virtual machines, specifically utilizing the Ethereum blockchain and smart contract programming as proof of concept to showcase the functionality and feasibility of the system. Additionally, the packet structure and the throughput are also demonstrated to prove the efficiency of the proposed method.

Sanjeev Kumar Dwivedi, Ruhul Amin, Satyanarayana Vollala, Muhammad Khurram Khan

The traditional handover authentication protocols in Vehicular Ad-hoc Network (VANET) suffer from important issues like single source of trust, Single-Point-of-Failure (SPoF), and fails to provide robust authentication due to several potential threats. In state-of-the-art of handover authentication, it takes high computation and communication overhead. The main aim of this paper is to integrate blockchain technology into the VANET system and to design a robust handover authentication protocol to solve the above-mentioned challenges. In this article, we design blockchain-based mutual authentication and session key agreement protocols for intra-vehicular and inter-vehicular (handover case) scenarios by implementing the hash function and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC). We also validate the proposed model by using the Scyther tool and Real-Or-Random (ROR) oracle, standard model. The proposed scheme confirms security against all applicable attacks during security analysis. Furthermore, a detailed comparative analysis reveals that the proposed method has low communication and computation overheads and achieves more functionality features and security attributes than the relevant schemes.

Zhaowei Ma

Distributed deep learning (DDL) within vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) holds profound significance in developing smart applications, such as intelligent transport systems and autonomous driving, where multiple parties are coordinated to leverage the training capability and acquisitive intelligence. Blockchain (BC) is a distribution technology promising for trustworthy DDL, holding the divide-and-conquer concept with decentralized management and consensus algorithms to reduce the exposure of sensitive controllers and thus the risks of malicious system-wide attacks. Moreover, zero trust architecture (ZTA) concepts are promoted as innovative cybersecurity solution which can be integrated with BC to address the resource-limited and infrastructure-less issues to augment the strength of DDL in VANETs. In this dissertation, the BC and ZTA potential is explored to construct reliable VANETs for trustworthy data sharing and thus to support significant within-VANET DDL and relevant applications. Firstly, virtualized distributed ledger technology (vDLT) is developed as the multimedia BC platform, followed by vDLT-based VANETs built to solve the unsteady communication; secondly, vDLT is improved to transmit and secure traffic events in VANETs; subsequently, a vDLT-based DDL system is proposed to enhance object detection (OD) inside VANETs; finally, ZTA and sharding scheme are enabled in vDLT-based VANETs for improved protection. Generally, vDLT runs with virtualized resource and sharding supports for scalability improvement, along with multi-layered consensus algorithm and an adaptable hierarchical and decentralized PBAC (hdPBAC) access control model to agilely protect the DDL procedures and relevant DDL-related applications. The proposed system has been developed, including the vDLT system, the multimedia streaming over vDLT in fixed networks and VANETs, a precursory vDLT-based DDL system for OD purpose, and the integration of ZTA into scalable-BC-based VANETs. The evaluation results show the feasibility of proposed design and demonstrate the significance of performance improvements.

Shirin Sultana, Jahin Hossain, Maruf Billah, Hasibul Hossain Shajeeb · 7 authors

Data from interconnected vehicles may contain sensitive information such as location, driving behavior, personal identifiers, etc. Without adequate safeguards, sharing this data jeopardizes data privacy and system security. The current centralized data-sharing paradigm in these systems raises particular concerns about data privacy. Recognizing these challenges, the shift towards decentralized interactions in technology, as echoed by the principles of Industry 5.0, becomes paramount. This work is closely aligned with these principles, emphasizing decentralized, human-centric, and secure technological interactions in an interconnected vehicular ecosystem. To embody this, we propose a practical approach that merges two emerging technologies: Federated Learning (FL) and Blockchain. The integration of these technologies enables the creation of a decentralized vehicular network. In this setting, vehicles can learn from each other without compromising privacy while also ensuring data integrity and accountability. Initial experiments show that compared to conventional decentralized federated learning techniques, our proposed approach significantly enhances the performance and security of vehicular networks. The system's accuracy stands at 91.92\%. While this may appear to be low in comparison to state-of-the-art federated learning models, our work is noteworthy because, unlike others, it was achieved in a malicious vehicle setting. Despite the challenging environment, our method maintains high accuracy, making it a competent solution for preserving data privacy in vehicular networks.

Ali Khan, Naveed Ul Hassan, Chuadhry Mujeeb Ahmed, Zartash Afzal Uzmi · 5 authors

No abstract is available for this record.

Muhammad Firdaus, Harashta Tatimma Larasati, Kyung-Hyune Rhee

The enormous volume of heterogeneous data from various smart device-based applications has growingly increased a deeply interlaced cyber-physical system. In order to deliver smart cloud services that require low latency with strong computational processing capabilities, the Edge Intelligence System (EIS) idea is now being employed, which takes advantage of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Edge Computing Technology (ECT). Thus, EIS presents a potential approach to enforcing future Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), particularly within a context of a Vehicular Network (VNets). However, the current EIS framework meets some issues and is conceivably vulnerable to multiple adversarial attacks because the central aggregator server handles the entire system orchestration. Hence, this paper introduces the concept of distributed edge intelligence, combining the advantages of Federated Learning (FL), Differential Privacy (DP), and blockchain to address the issues raised earlier. By performing decentralized data management and storing transactions in immutable distributed ledger networks, the blockchain-assisted FL method improves user privacy and boosts traffic prediction accuracy. Additionally, DP is utilized in defending the user’s private data from various threats and is given the authority to bolster the confidentiality of data-sharing transactions. Our model has been deployed in two strategies: First, DP-based FL to strengthen user privacy by masking the intermediate data during model uploading. Second, blockchain-based FL to effectively construct secure and decentralized traffic management in vehicular networks. The simulation results demonstrated that our framework yields several benefits for VNets privacy protection by forming a distributed EIS with privacy budget (ε) of 4.03, 1.18, and 0.522, achieving model accuracy of 95.8%, 93.78%, and 89.31%, respectively.

Muhammad Firdaus, Siwan Noh, Zhuohao Qian, Harashta Tatimma Larasati · 5 authors

Federated learning (FL) is a distributed machine learning technique that allows multiple devices (e.g., smartphones and IoT devices) to collaborate in the training of a shared model with each device preserving the privacy of its local data. However, the highly heterogeneous distribution of data among clients in FL can result in poor convergence. In addressing this issue, the concept of personalized federated learning (PFL) has emerged. PFL aims to tackle the effects of non-independent and identically distributed data and statistical heterogeneity and to achieve personalized models with rapid model convergence. One approach is clustering-based PFL, which utilizes group-level client relationships to achieve personalization. However, this method still relies on a centralized approach, whereby the server coordinates all processes. To address these shortcomings, this study introduces a blockchain-enabled distributed edge cluster for PFL (BPFL) that combines the benefits of blockchain and edge computing. Blockchain technology can be used to enhance client privacy and security by recording transactions on immutable distributed ledger networks, thereby improving client selection and clustering. The edge computing system offers reliable storage and computation such that computational processing is locally performed in the edge infrastructure to be closer to clients. Thus, the real-time services and low-latency communication of PFL are improved. However, further work is required to develop a representative dataset for the examination of related types of attacks and defenses for a robust BPFL protocol.

Sana Hafeez, Ahsan Raza Khan, Mohammad Al-Quraan, Lina Mohjazi · 7 authors

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have recently established their capacity to provide cost-effective and credible solutions for various real-world scenarios. UAVs provide an immense variety of services due to their autonomy, mobility, adaptability, and communications interoperability. Despite the expansive use of UAVs to support ground communications, data exchanges in those networks are susceptible to security threats because most communication is through radio or Wi-Fi signals, which are easy to hack. While several techniques exist to protect against cyberattacks. Recently emerging technology blockchain could be one of promising ways to enhance data security and user privacy in peer-to-peer UAV networks. Borrowing the superiorities of blockchain, multiple entities can communicate securely, decentralized, and equitably. This article comprehensively overviews privacy and security integration in blockchain-assisted UAV communication. For this goal, we present a set of fundamental analyses and critical requirements that can help build privacy and security models for blockchain and help manage and support decentralized data storage systems. The UAV communication system's security requirements and objectives, including availability, authentication, authorization, confidentiality, integrity, privacy, and non-repudiation, are thoroughly examined to provide a deeper insight. We wrap up with a discussion of open research challenges, the constraints of current UAV standards, and potential future research directions.

Ye Tao, Ehsan Javanmardi, Pengfei Lin, Jin Nakazato · 7 authors

Cooperative perception is crucial for connected automated vehicles in intelligent transportation systems (ITSs); however, ensuring the authenticity of perception data remains a challenge as the vehicles cannot verify events that they do not witness independently. Various studies have been conducted on establishing the authenticity of data, such as trust-based statistical methods and plausibility-based methods. However, these methods are limited as they require prior knowledge such as previous sender behaviors or predefined rules to evaluate the authenticity. To overcome this limitation, this study proposes a novel approach called zero-knowledge Proof of Traffic (zk-PoT), which involves generating cryptographic proofs to the traffic observations. Multiple independent proofs regarding the same vehicle can be deterministically cross-verified by any receivers without relying on ground truth, probabilistic, or plausibility evaluations. Additionally, no private information is compromised during the entire procedure. A full on-board unit software stack that reflects the behavior of zk-PoT is implemented within a specifically designed simulator called Flowsim. A comprehensive experimental analysis is then conducted using synthesized city-scale simulations, which demonstrates that zk-PoT’s cross-verification ratio ranges between 80 % to 96 %, and 90 % of the verification is achieved in 5 s, with a protocol overhead of approximately 25 %. Furthermore, the analyses of various attacks indicate that most of the attacks could be prevented, and some, such as collusion attacks, can be mitigated. The proposed approach can be incorporated into existing works, including the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) ITS standards, without disrupting the backward compatibility.

Hai Zhang, Feng Zhao

In vehicular ad hoc networks (VANET), the cross-domain identity authentication of users is very important for the development of VANET due to the large cross-domain mobility of vehicle users. The Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) system is often used to solve the identity authentication and security trust problems faced by VANET. However, the PKI system has challenges such as too centralized Authority of Certification Authority (CA), frequent cross-domain access to certificate interactions and high authentication volume, leading to high certificate management costs, complex cross-domain authentication paths, easy privacy leakage, and overburdened networks. To address these problems, this paper proposes a lightweight blockchain-based PKI identity management and authentication architecture that uses smart contracts to reduce the heavy burden caused by CAs directly managing the life cycle of digital certificates. On this basis, a trust chain based on smart contracts is designed to replace the traditional CA trust chain to meet the general cross-domain requirements, to effectively avoid the communication pressure caused by a mass of certificate transmissions. For the cross-domain scenario with higher privacy and security requirements the identity attribute authentication service is provided directly while protecting privacy by using the Merkle tree to anchor identity attribute data on and off the blockchain chain. Finally, the proposed scheme was comprehensively analyzed in terms of cost, time consumption and security.

Durga Rajan, E. Poovammal, Gautam Srivastava, Kadiyala Ramana · 5 authors

Abstract Intelligent and networked vehicles help build an efficient vehicular network's infrastructure. The widespread use of electronic software exposes these networks to cyber‐attacks. Intrusion detection systems (IDS) are useful for preventing vehicle network assaults. IDS have been customized using machine and deep learning networks for greater real‐time performance. Current learning‐based intrusion detection systems demand substantial processing capabilities to train and update intricate training models in vehicular devices, resulting in decreased efficiency and ability to defend against assaults. This study presents Blockchain‐based Multi‐Layer Federated Extreme Learning Machines (MLFEM) enabled IDS (BEF‐IDS) for safe data transfers. The proposed IDS leverages federated learning to generate Multi‐Layered Extreme Learning Machines, which are offloaded to dispersed vehicular edge devices such as Road‐Side Units (RSU) and connected vehicles. This federated strategy decreases resource use without sacrificing security. Blockchain technology records and shares training models, assuring network security. Using real‐time data sets, the suggested algorithm's performance under different attack scenarios were extensively tested. The suggested method obtained 98% accuracy and Recall, 97.9% Precision, and 97.9% F1 Score performance, which suggests it's incredibly secure and costs very little to transmit.

Pravin Mundhe, Pooja Phad, R. Yuvaraj, Shekhar Verma · 5 authors

No abstract is available for this record.

Jegadeesan Subramani, Azees Maria, Arun Sekar Rajasekaran, Fadi Al‐Turjman · 5 authors

Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks (VANETs) have a lot of potential for improving traffic management and driver safety. However, employing a wireless channel for vehicle communication has security and privacy concerns such as authentication, confidentiality, integrity, access control, and availability. Hence, it is indispensable to address the security and privacy aspects of the vehicles utilized in these contexts. In this study, a blockchain-based physically secure, and privacy-aware anonymous authentication technique leveraging the fog computing architecture. The proposed method can efficiently solve security and privacy problems using its attributes of support to movement, reduced latency, and location monitoring. In addition, the decentralized nature of blockchain technology is used to ensure the data security of vehicles. The vehicle is not required to store the secret keys to do anonymous authentication and provides physical security for the vehicle. The implied scheme provides essential security features with less storage, computational and communication costs than related competitive schemes.

Wendong Chen, Haiqin Wu, Xiao Chen, Jinfu Chen

Numerous academic and industrial fields, such as healthcare, banking, and supply chain management, are rapidly adopting and relying on blockchain technology. It has also been suggested for application in the internet of vehicles (IoV) ecosystem as a way to improve service availability and reliability. Blockchain offers decentralized, distributed and tamper-proof solutions that bring innovation to data sharing and management, but do not themselves protect privacy and data confidentiality. Therefore, solutions using blockchain technology must take user privacy concerns into account. This article reviews the proposed solutions that use blockchain technology to provide different vehicle services while overcoming the privacy leakage problem which inherently exists in blockchain and vehicle services. We analyze the key features and attributes of prior schemes and identify their contributions to provide a comprehensive and critical overview. In addition, we highlight prospective future research topics and present research problems.

Debashis Das, Sourav Banerjee, Pushpita Chatterjee, Uttam Ghosh · 5 authors

In recent years, the corporate and industrial sectors have been experiencing significant transformations in vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication. It can improve vehicle safety by giving signals to other vehicles wirelessly. The latest software, hardware, and technologies are applied to develop trusted applications that make V2V communication more believable. Today, various technologies are incorporated into vehicles to remove the barrier to existing challenges. The connected vehicles in V2V communication use sensors, data storage, and communication devices. Vehicles can communicate using the latest secure and trusted Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything (C-V2X) technology using direct and network communication modes. Even connected vehicles suffer from data security, user privacy, reliable environment, and vehicle security. Blockchain can help to eliminate those issues in V2V communication systems. Herein, a secure blockchain-enabled V2V communication system (BVCS) is proposed to enhance the security of vehicles and secure data sharing and communication among vehicles. The developed smart contracts in this paper can authenticate users and their vehicles automatically. In this paper, the proposed algorithms can authenticate users, detect unauthorized access, and establish secure communication between vehicles. The proposed system can enhance data security, user privacy, and vehicle security and provide a trusted environment in V2V communication systems.

Mingyang Yuan, Yang Xu, Cheng Zhang, Yunlin Tan · 7 authors

The Internet of vehicles (IoV) has a substantial impact on traffic efficiency improvement and accidents avoidance. Due to restricted resources, vehicles must share observed data with RSUs and other vehicles to execute some time-tolerant computing tasks. However, data provided by vehicles cannot always be trusted due to the presence of attackers. Fake messages could have catastrophic ramifications, such as vehicle collisions. Furthermore, extensive data sharing might cause channel congestion, resulting in the loss of vital messages during delivery. To overcome the aforementioned issues, we propose TRUCON, a blockchain-based trusted data sharing mechanism with congestion control in IoV. Firstly, we propose a Kademlia algorithm-based traffic data forwarding method to control channel congestion state. By adjusting the bucket size and distance threshold, source vehicles can limit the number of reference vehicles forwarded. Secondly, we present a cuckoo filter-based traffic data deduplication and discrimination approach. To avoid repetitive sharing, vehicles and RSUs can check their local filters to verify if the current data report has been shared. Based on the foregoing, we propose a blockchain-based trust management mechanism with congestion control. RSUs serve as full nodes while vehicles are light nodes in the blockchain. Finally, we develop a trust management prototype system with congestion control that incorporates both on-chain and off-chain parts. It signifies that our scheme is both feasible and effective.

Guangcheng Li, Qinglin Zhao, MengChu Zhou, Hong Liang

Chain-structured blockchains (e.g., Bitcoin and Ethereum) are often criticized for resource waste, low scalability, and high transaction fees. Tangle has been proposed to overcome these drawbacks by adopting a directed acyclic graph structure, new consensus mechanisms, etc. Particularly, Tangle defines a transaction-processing rule, which requires that new incoming transactions should approve several existing transactions before being attached to Tangle, to exclude miners and transaction fees. However, this rule makes it difficult to support smart contract (SC) in Tangle, an essential component of numerous decentralized applications, because the execution and verification of SC usually require transaction fees as incentive awards. In this work, we propose an “on-Tangle” SC protocol called equivalent-exchange-based smart contract (EESC), which runs on the Tangle core, to address this challenge. EESC extends the transaction-processing rule to SC and hence maintains Tangle's advantages of no fees and no mining. In EESC, a user should verify other users' SCs before submitting its SC. The workload of verifying these existing SCs is greater than that of verifying the newly submitted one. Extensive simulations verify that EESC is fast and efficient and can well achieve our goal.

Claudio Piccolo Fernandes, Carlos Montez, Daniel Domingos Adriano, Azzedine Boukerche · 5 authors

No abstract is available for this record.

Debashis Das, Kousik Dasgupta, Utpal Biswas

No abstract is available for this record.