Blockchain Papers

Li Wang, Yuhang Zheng, Yu Zhang, Feng Li

No abstract is available for this record.

Nikita Konstantinovich Chistousov, Igor A. Kalmykov, Daniil Vyacheslavovich Dukhovnyj, I. D. Efremenkov · 5 authors

Low-orbit satellite communication systems (LOSCS) should have the property of noise immunity, which is based on informational, structural and energetic secrecy, as well as noise resistance. One of the directions associated with increasing of informational secrecy is based on the use of a satellite identification system. This system is designed to prevent the imposition of someone else's content on the subscriber through the use of an authentication protocol based on zero-knowledge proof. In a number of works it is proposed to use modular codes (MC) for a reduction of the time of identification of the applicant as MC give the possibility for parallelizing the process of calculations in the protocol. It is known that MC can increase the fault tolerance of the identification system as they are able to eliminate the consequences of failures during operation. But they can also be used to increase the noise immunity of the LOSCS. Thus, the use of a single algebraic system in the construction of MC that are capable of correcting errors caused not only by failures during operation of the identification system, but also by interference in the communication channel, will allow us to abandon cascade codes. Therefore, the development of a method for constructing a modular turbo code for a noise-proof satellite authentication system is an urgent task.

Qianqian Pan, Jun Wu, Ali Kashif Bashir, Jianhua Li · 6 authors

With the capability of establishing line-of-sight (LoS) links for devices, drones are generally utilized as aerial base stations to construct coexisting drone-terrestrial networks (CDTNs) for wireless communication. However, the established LoS links are easily blocked, thereby severely decreasing transmission performance. The intelligent reflecting surface (IRS) is a promising technology to improve data transmission in the CDTN by programming propagation channels. However, secure IRS reflection resource allocation is still an open issue. Existing IRS resource allocation methods are mainly based on a centralized third party and are vulnerable to the single point of failure. Furthermore, intelligent allocation of IRS reflection resources is also a key issue. To solve these problems, we propose a blockchain and artificial intelligence (AI) enabled configurable reflection resource allocation approach for the IRS-aided CDTN. First, we establish the IRS-aided communication framework for the CDTN, where a drone-mounted IRS is introduced to improve spatial freedom for data transmission. Second, the blockchain-based reflection resource management mechanism is proposed. In this mechanism, we design allocation transactions, the hierarchical blockchain structure, and smart-contract-enabled resource trading. Third, the AI-based reflection resource allocation mechanism is proposed, including the intelligent reflection elements assignment and deep-reinforcement-learning-driven reflection coefficient configuration. Furthermore, experimental results verify the effectiveness of our proposed approach. Finally, open issues and key challenges of the proposed approach are discussed.

Runze Cheng, Yao Sun, Lina Mohjazi, Ying‐Chang Liang · 5 authors

In a space-air-ground integrated network (SAGIN), managing resources for the growing number of highly-dynamic and heterogeneous radios is a challenging task. Symbiotic communication (SC) is a novel paradigm, which leverages the analogy of the natural ecosystem in biology to create a radio ecosystem in wireless networks that achieves cooperative service exchange and resource sharing, i.e., service/resource trading, among numerous radios. As a result, the potential of symbiotic communication can be exploited to enhance resource management in SAGIN. Despite the fact that different radio resource bottlenecks can complement each other via symbiotic relationships, unreliable information sharing among heterogeneous radios and multi-dimensional resources managing under diverse service requests impose critical challenges on trusted trading and intelligent decision-making. In this article, we propose a secure and smart symbiotic SAGIN (S^4) framework by using blockchain for ensuring trusted trading among heterogeneous radios and machine learning (ML) for guiding complex service/resource trading. A case study demonstrates that our proposed S^4 framework provides better service with rational resource management when compared with existing schemes. Finally, we discuss several potential research directions for future symbiotic SAGIN.

Fengxiao Tang, Cong Wen, Linfeng Luo, Ming Zhao · 5 authors

In the future era of intelligent networks, communication technology and network architecture need to be further developed to provide users with high-quality services. The Space-Air-Ground Integrated Networks (SAGIN) is seen as a potential architecture to provide ubiquitous communication and drive the era of the intelligent global network. The space and air segments in SAGIN can assist in offloading traffic from the ground segment. However, in a highly dynamic and heterogeneous network like SAGIN, offloading decisions are easily affected by the incorporated/malicious nodes. How to ensure security and improve network performance becomes a critical problem. In this paper, we address the above problem by jointly using blockchain and federated reinforcement learning (FRL). Firstly, we propose a blockchain-based secure federated learning framework that combines topology information chain and model chain to assist traffic offloading. Then, we propose a node security evaluation and an enhanced practical byzantine fault tolerance (EPBFT) algorithm to secure the traffic offloading process. Furthermore, we describe the traffic offloading problem as a Markov decision problem (MDP) and employ the Blockchain-based Federated Asynchronous Advantage Actor-Critic (BFA3C) algorithm to solve this problem. Finally, the simulation results show that the BFA3C-based algorithm used in SAGIN with/without malicious nodes achieves superior performance in terms of latency and security.

Li Wang, Yuhang Zheng, Yu Zhang, Feng Li

No abstract is available for this record.

Igor A. Kalmykov, В Ш Мухаметшин, K T Tyncherov, M V Selivanova

Abstract Low-earth orbit (LEO) satellite communication systems must have anti-jam property, which is based on information, structural and energy secrecy as well as immunity to jamming. One of the directions associated with increasing information secrecy is based on the use of a satellite identification system. This system is designed to prevent the imposition of foreign content on the subscriber through the use of an authentication protocol built on proof with zero knowledge. To reduce the time of applicant identification, a number of works propose to use modular codes (MC), which allow parallelizing the computational process in the protocol. It is known that MCs can improve the fault tolerance of the identification system since they are able to eliminate the consequences of faults and failures during operation. However, they can also be used to improve the immunity of LEO satellite communication systems to jamming. Thus, the use of a unified algebraic system when constructing MCs capable of correcting errors caused not only by faults and failures during the operation of the identification system but also by interference in the communication channel will enable to abandon concatenated codes. Therefore, the development of a method for constructing a modular turbo code for an anti-jam satellite authentication system is an urgent task.

Zuguang LI, Wei Wang, Jia Guo, Youwen Zhu · 6 authors

Space-air-ground integrated network is capable of providing seamless and ubiquitous services to cater for the increasing wireless communication demands of emerging applications. However, how to efficiently manage the heterogeneous resources and protect the privacy of connected devices is a very challenging issue, especially under the highly dynamic network topology and multiple trustless network operators. In this paper, we investigate blockchain-empowered dynamic spectrum management by reaping the advantages of blockchain and software defined network (SDN), where operators are incentive to share their resources in a common resourced pool. We first propose a blockchain enabled spectrum management framework for space-air-ground integrated network, with inter-slice spectrum sharing and intra-slice spectrum allocation. Specifically, the inter-slice spectrum sharing is realized through a consortium blockchain formed by the upper-tier SDN controllers, and then a graph coloring based channel assignment algorithm is proposed to manage the intra-slice spectrum assignment. A bilateral confirmation protocol and a consensus mechanism are also proposed for the consortium blockchain. The simulation results prove that our proposed consensus algorithm takes less time than practical Byzantine fault tolerance algorithm to reach a consensus, and the proposed channel assignment algorithm significantly improves the spectrum utilization and outperforms the baseline algorithm in both simulation and real-world scenarios.

Hong‐Ning Dai, Yulei Wu, Muhammad Imran, Nidal Nasser

Space-air-ground-sea integrated networks (SAGSINs) are promising to offer ubiquitous Internet services across the globe while confronting research challenges such as security vulnerabilities, privacy leakage concerns, and difficulty in resource sharing. On one hand, emerging network slicing and network softwarization technologies can fulfill diverse requirements with the provision of various services on top of heterogeneous SAGSIN hardware and software resources. On the other hand, blockchain and smart contracts can compensate for network slicing and softwarization to offer secure and automatic network services. This article presents an investigation on the convergence of blockchains with network slicing and network softwarization technologies for SAGSINs from the perspectives of network management and brokerage services of SAGSINs. In contrast to existing studies, this article is the first to incorporate blockchains into network slicing and network softwarization dedicated for SAGSINs. This article starts with a summary of key characteristics and challenges of SAGSINs. Then a review of network slicing and network softwarization is given in the context of SAGSINs. This article next presents an integrated framework of network slicing, network softwarization, and blockchain for SAGSINs. Moreover, this article outlines a set of open issues and research challenges that would be useful to guide future research in this area.

Nikita Konstantinovich Chistousov, Igor A. Kalmykov, Daniil Vyacheslavovich Dukhovnyj, М. И. Калмыков · 5 authors

Authentication protocols are expanding their application scope in wireless information systems, among which are low-orbit satellite communication systems (LOSCS) for the OneWeb space Internet, automatic object identification systems using RFID, the Internet of Things, intelligent transportation systems (ITS), Vehicular Ad Hoc Network (VANET). This is due to the fact that authentication protocols effectively resist a number of attacks on wireless data transmission channels in these systems. The main disadvantage of most authentication protocols is the use of symmetric and asymmetric encryption systems to ensure high cryptographic strength. As a result, there is a problem in delivering keys to the sides of the prover and the verifier. At the same time, compromising of keys will lead to a decrease in the level of protection of the transmitted data. Zero-knowledge authentication protocols (ZKAP) are able to eliminate this disadvantage. However, most of these protocols use multiple rounds to authenticate the prover. Therefore, ZKAP, which has minimal time costs, is developed in the article. A scheme for adapting protocol parameters has been developed in this protocol to increase its efficiency. Reductions in the level of confidentiality allow us to reduce the time spent on the execution of the authentication protocol. This increases the volume of information traffic. At the same time, an increase in the confidentiality of the protocol entails an increase in the time needed for authentication of the prover, which reduces the volume of information traffic. The FPGA Artix-7 xc7a12ticsg325-1L was used to estimate the time spent implementing the adaptive ZKAP protocol. Testing was performed for 32- and 64-bit adaptive authentication protocols.

Xia Deng, Junbin Shao, Le Chang, Junbin Liang

With the rapid development of satellite technology and the high transmission efficiency of LEO satellites, LEO satellite communication has received increasing attention. However, the frequent switching of satellite-earth links imposes a great challenge in LEO communication authentication. To tackle this challenge, this paper proposes a Blockchain-based Authentication Protocol Using Cryptocurrency Technology (BAPC), which solves the problem of a long pause time of satellite services caused by user access authentication in a scenario of frequent switching between satellites and ground users. First, we design three stages of the authentication process and introduce the cryptocurrency technology. Using currency transactions as the certificate of authentication improves not only the security of authentication, but also the efficiency of switching authentication. Next, in the network topology, the satellite cluster is divided into multiple regions to improve the efficiency of block consensus. Finally, the protocol is tested through extensive NS2-based simulations, and the results verify that BAPC can greatly shorten the response time of switching authentication and significantly reduce the time of block generation and the network throughput. As the number of users increases, the block generation time and network throughput can be further reduced.

Chengjie Li, Lidong Zhu, M. Luglio, Zhongqiang Luo · 5 authors

Due to satellite physical constraints in terms of available power and area, data processing capacity is low, storage and security are limited. It is a challenge to protect satellite network from illegal information access and use storage space effectively. In this paper, a blockchain technology-based on authentication and privacy protection scheme is proposed for a satellite communication network. to this aim, an architecture consisting of both conventional and restricted devices connected to the blockchain via a wireless heterogeneous network is deployed. The communication is carried out through registration, authentication and revocation. In this scheme, the satellite will forward the collected information to the ground base station, which will record all key parameters on the distributed blockchain and all malicious node certificates will be cleared from the blockchain by the ground base station. The simulation results show that the scheme has been greatly improved in terms of communication security and communication overhead.

Zhenqiang Sun, Wei Liang, Fei Qi, Zhongping Dong · 5 authors

The Ubiquitous IoT (UIoT) is a three-dimensional network that spans space-air-ground. It contains multiple network elements such as satellites, terrestrial cellular networks, terrestrial gateways, and data centers. Due to the need for openness and sharing among different operators, it is necessary to research wireless spectrum sharing. The new technologies of blockchain and the 6G hybrid cloud pose a potential solution. We propose to migrate the spectrum sharing system of 6G to the hybrid blockchain. Subdividing the granularity of the spectrum resources of UIoT devices in multiple dimensions can enable reliable and secure random access to a large amount of UIoT terminal data. Cloud computing and smart contract technology can effectively ensure the interconnection of massive data and the authenticity of externally perceived data.

David Soldani

This article reviews the 6G global landscape and the most relevant private and public initiatives, with US$ billions of investments in next generation information and communication (ICT) systems and application services. Then, it presents the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) technology roadmap towards 6G and 5G New Radio (NR) releases. This is followed by an introduction to the latest shift in paradigm “from Internet of Things (IoT) to Internet of Intelligence (IoI)”, which paves the way towards 6G wireless. The new system is anticipated to provide pervasive connectivity to functions with the ability to represent knowledge, process knowledge, and make decisions, with or without human intervention. Beyond that, the paper discusses the new carrier frequency bands above 110 GHz; and innovative fundamental enabling technologies, such as integrated semantic communication and sensing, low earth orbiting satellites, quantum key distribution, post quantum cryptography, and distributed ledger technology; and portrays a network vision for 6G wireless, looking to 2030 and beyond. Conclusions are drawn on 6G prospects, the needs of security by design for 6G; as well as the potential of 6G for securely connecting pervasive intelligence and preserving privacy; and new research directions to cater for new use categories and requirements.

Sheng Cao, Sixuan Dang, Yuan Zhang, Wei Wang · 5 authors

No abstract is available for this record.

Chengjie Li, Xiaochao Sun, Zhen Zhang

In satellite communication systems, satellite power and processing capacities are limited, which means that storage and security are also constrained. Satellite communication channels are extremely vulnerable to hackers and external interference signals. Protecting satellite networks from illegal information access and use can be extremely challenging. In this paper, an architecture composed of satellite and ground equipment is developed that integrates communication network authentication and privacy protection structures. In the proposed scheme, the communication, registration, authentication, and revocation of information are achieved through stages to improve communication security. The satellite forwards the collected information to a ground base station, which has a strong data processing capacity. The ground base station records all the key parameters in the distributed blockchain, and all malicious node certificates are removed from the system. To further enhance data transmission security, the key is transferred using an asymmetric encryption algorithm. To measure the robustness of using the proposed network architecture, under the same attack condition, an invulnerability analysis is performed. After conducting simulation experiments, the results show that the proposed scheme greatly improves communication security and protection.

Chen Wang, Jian Shen, Pandi Vijayakumar, Brij B. Gupta

With global economic integration, transnational trade plays an important role, and maritime transportation is one of the important means of freight transportation. It is of great significance to build a secure and efficient maritime transportation system (MTS). The introduction of Internet of things technology makes MTS more perfect. The IoT-enabled MTS is composed of marine terminals and on-board sensors, land-based data centers and base stations, as well as satellite networks. Many researchers have carried out significant work to aggregate data in MTS. However, because the terrestrial base stations cannot cover most of the sea area, the isolated maritime terminals, those who drive to the area without base station coverage, need the assistance of satellite networks to complete the contact with the data center. In this paper, we propose an attribute based secure data aggregation scheme for isolated IoT-enabled MTS. In the novel scheme, the constant attributes of a maritime terminal are utilized to generate its certification. In addition, on-board sensors are introduced in the system to help aggregate the status and surrounding environment of the maritime terminal. These monitoring data are encrypted by the sensors and transmitted to the data center for the trustworthiness evaluation of the isolated maritime terminal. Besides, the zero-knowledge proof is utilized to confirm the legitimacy of participating users. What's more, the security analysis and the simulation results show that the novel scheme is secure and efficient for IoT-enabled MTS.

Emanuele Di Pascale, Hamed Ahmadi, Linda Doyle, Irene Macaluso

Neutral host SCPs represent a key element of the 5G vision of ultra-dense mobile networks. However, current business models mostly focus on multi-year agreements for large venues, such as stadiums and hotel chains. These business agreements are regulated through binding SLAs, which tend to be too cumbersome and costly for smaller-scale SCPs. As a result, the neutral host model does not scale up to its full potential. In this article, we propose a framework to enable the participation of small- to medium-sized players in the cellular market as providers offering network resources to MNOs. To this purpose, we review the current and emerging spectrum and technology opportunities that SCPs can use for neutral host deployments. We also propose the use of blockchain-enabled smart contracts as a simple and cost-efficient alternative to traditional SLAs for small-scale SCPs. To demonstrate this, we describe a proof of concept implementation of an Ethereum-based smart contract platform for best effort service between an SCP and an MNO. Our simulations on potential smart contract-based deployments in city center Dublin show that the received signal strength in the considered area will increase by an average of 10 percent.

Emanuele Di Pascale, Hamed Ahmadi, Linda Doyle, Irene Macaluso

Neutral Host Small Cell Providers (SCP) represent a key element of the 5G\nvision of ultra-dense mobile networks. However, current business models mostly\nfocus on multi-year agreements for large venues, such as stadiums and hotel\nchains. These business agreements are regulated through binding Service Level\nAgreements (SLAs), which tend to be too cumbersome and costly for smaller scale\nSCPs. As a result, the neutral host model does not scale up to its full\npotential. In this paper, we propose a framework to enable the participation of\nsmall- to medium-sized players in the cellular market as providers offering\nnetwork resources to Mobile Network Operators (MNOs). To this purpose, we\nreview the current and emerging spectrum and technology opportunities that SCPs\ncan use for neutral host deployments. We also propose the use of\nblockchain-enabled smart contracts as a simple and cost-efficient alternative\nto traditional SLAs for small-scale SCPs. To demonstrate this, we describe a\nproof of concept implementation of an Ethereum-based smart contract platform\nfor best-effort service between an SCP and an MNO. Our simulations on potential\nsmart contract-based deployments in city centre Dublin show that the received\nsignal strength in the considered area will increase by an average of $10$\npercent.\n

Ming Feng, Hao Xu

In this paper, the security problem for mobile satellite communication networks (MSNET) has been investigated. With the rapidly growth of communication needs, mobile satellite systems represent a significant solution to provide high-quality communication services to mobile users in under-populated regions, in emergency areas, on planes, trains and ships. However, lacking an effective framework to secure mobile satellite communication networks seriously limited the practicality of satellite services. Therefore, a new security framework have been developed in this paper to address the security challenges in mobile satellite communication network. Firstly, the mobile satellite communication networks have been formulated as delay-tolerance network (DTN). Then, the blockchain technique has been adopted and used in two aspects, i.e. 1) integrating with DTN structure to secure the data communication, 2) combing with the practical satellite constellation management algorithm to defend the unexpected cyber attacks physically. Through integrating emerging blockchain techniques with both communication and physical aspects, the developed framework cannot only effectively detect the cyber attacks, but also better defend the mobile satellite communication networks through communication and satellite management aspects. Eventually, the numerical simulation and experimental tests have been provided to demonstrate the effectiveness of developed MSNET-Blockchain framework.

Carles Araguz, Marc Closa, Elisenda Bou‐Balust, Eduard Alarcón

The design of autonomous operational schemes for distributed, decentralized systems is expected to bring multiple qualities to systems of this kind. One of their instances are Earth-observing swarms of nano-satellites, in which their collective function targets global performance figures. The design of autonomous operations can be modelled as a collective scheduling problem subject to resource constraints. There are many system-wide qualities of interest, such as resiliency, adaptability, responsiveness, among others, that need specific frameworks to characterize the proposed solutions. This paper presents one such design-oriented tool that can evaluate these autonomous organization schemes-potentially for large-scale and highly heterogeneous scenarios with dynamic contexts and multiple time-scales-and illustrates its usage in the evaluation of an autonomous nano-satellite swarm that collectively optimizes revisit times.

Songjie Wei, Shuai Li, Peilong Liu, Meilin Liu

LEO constellation has received intensive research attention in the field of satellite communication. The existing centralized authentication protocols traditionally used for MEO/GEO satellite networks cannot accommodate LEO satellites with frequent user connection switching. This paper proposes a fast and efficient access verification protocol named BAVP by combining identity-based encryption and blockchain technology. Two different key management schemes with IBE and blockchain, respectively, are investigated, which further enhance the authentication reliability and efficiency in LEO constellation. Experiments on OPNET simulation platform evaluate and demonstrate the effectiveness, reliability, and fast-switching efficiency of the proposed protocol. For LEO networks, BAVP surpasses the well-known existing solutions with significant advantages in both performance and scalability which are supported by theoretical analysis and simulation results.

Shuai Li, Meilin Liu, Songjie Wei

No abstract is available for this record.