Abstract In this article, the authors proposed a novel blockchain‐oriented location privacy‐preserving (BoLPP) for the Cooperative Spectrum Sensing (CSS) in 6G networks. In order to attain the sustainability of privacy and security for 6G wireless networks, it is a great challenge in this sensing as it faces various malicious attacks while the secondary user (SU) is active. To tackle these issues, the authors proposed a novel framework for blockchain‐oriented Cognitive Radio Networks (CRNs) for CSS using an energy detection technique. Moreover, the authors implemented another novel paradigm BoLPP, to attain the privacy of SUs location for CSS in 6G networks. This approach preserves the SUs’ location and makes the BoLPP framework immune to all malicious attackers. The simulation results have been undergone based on the performance metrics such as response time, consistency, probability of false alarm, frame loss (%), average network throughput, energy efficiency, and security. The outcomes reveal that the proposed scheme achieves high security, privacy, energy efficiency, average network throughput, and low probability of false alarm and frame loss (%) when compared with the existing frameworks such as Friend or Foe (FoF) and Tidal Trust Algorithm (TTA) mechanisms. It is observed that the proposed BoLPP mechanism provides better security and privacy in 6G wireless networks.
To overcome the spectrum scarcity issues, the citizens broadband radio service (CBRS) presents a centralized spectrum management solution. The efficiency of spectrum utilization could be further improved by introducing spectrum trading. Blockchain-based spectrum trading has been considered as a decentralized, flexible, and secure approach. However, current studies rarely investigate the interference to incumbent users caused by spectrum trading between CBRS devices (CBSDs), and the scalability issues in blockchain-based spectrum trading are rarely discussed. To address the problems above, this paper develops the blockchain-based spectrum trading mechanisms for CBRS. Particularly, we propose a queuing mechanism for intra-coexistence group (CxG) trading, in which spectrum trading is leveraged to reduce the aggregated interference to incumbents. A new parameter termed “network feature” is proposed to prioritize spectrum transactions in different queues, which helps to achieve the trade-off between the interference to incumbents and resource requirements in spectrum transactions. Furthermore, we propose a multi-blockchain architecture and a corresponding cross-chain mechanism to improve the speed of inter-CxG spectrum trading. Simulation results show that the aggregated interference to incumbents can be reduced by adopting the proposed method. Meanwhile, when adopting the proposed cross-chain spectrum trading mechanism, the network throughput can be improved by up to 24% compared with the traditional CBRS spectrum management framework.
Esraa M. Ghourab, Lina Bariah, Sami Muhaidat, Paschalis C. Sofotasios · 6 authors
The highly dynamic nature of cognitive radio systems (CR) and their stringent latency requirements pose a major challenge in the realization of efficient intelligent transportation systems. In this paper, we investigate relay selection and opportunistic spectrum access in conjunction with blockchain technology. In particular, we propose a cross-layer method for secure relay selection, where secondary relays (SRs) are granted access to available spectrum bands based on the balance of their respective virtual wallets. These virtual wallets, which are built based on the SRs' secrecy capacity and their behavior in the network, are the predominant factors that allow SRs to participate in an auction model. To quantify the trustworthiness of SRs, we formulate a mathematical framework to evaluate the trust value of each SR, which is then leveraged for rewarding or penalizing the SR. We develop an offline module blockchain framework to store the real-time information of participating relays and make it available for future operations. The information is checked and verified by miners. Our system is able to detect reputable and non-reputable relays in the presence of multiple eavesdroppers. We present a thorough numerical analysis to demonstrate the superiority of the proposed scheme in terms of security, credibility, and integrity. On average, the secrecy capacity rate of the overall system increased by 70% compared to the traditional systems. Further, the propsed model perform better in low SNR compared to traditional one.
Dynamic Spectrum Sharing (DSS) is proposed as a solution to the spectrum scarcity and under-utilization problem in a world of ever-increasing spectrum demand. Enabling DSS, however, requires overcoming many technical, regulatory, and economic challenges. Cognitive Radio (CR) provided a solution for some of the technical issues of DSS by equipping wireless devices with intelligent sensing and decision making capabilities to enable dynamic sharing of the surrounding spectrum between devices. However, CR alone has been unable to provide a fully dynamic ecosystem for spectrum sharing that guarantees protection for spectrum owners. This has led multiple spectrum regulators to implement frameworks that enable DSS through a centralized spectrum management system that complements the CR capabilities to ensure compliance with spectrum access policies and regulations. However, these frameworks require trusting a third party to manage spectrum access and do not provide intrinsic mechanisms to incentives spectrum owners to share their spectrum. Blockchain technology provides a distributed platform for autonomous asset trading that can be utilized to implement a fully dynamic spectrum sharing system, ensuring transparency and trust between devices without the need for a third party. This paper provides a blockchain-based model for a DSS that represents spectrum access rights as tokenized assets and enables trading of these spectrum tokens between multiple users on a distributed ledger using smart contracts. The proposed model is implemented using Hyperledger Fabric (HLF) as a permissioned blockchain network and the details of the implemented Chaincode transactions are outlined.
Traditional centralized electromagnetic spectrum monitoring platforms collect energy detection data from time, frequency and space dimensions. This method has high data redundancy. Combining the propagation loss characteristics and the signal direction finding (DF) data of each detection node, we focus on the signal source compressed parameter estimation. We propose a minimum average distance (MAD) method to improve the accuracy of collaborative detection in Cognitive Radio Network (CRN). The collaborative estimated data is stored in the blockchain structure to establish the distributed electromagnetic spectrum database (BC-DSDB). Based on the consensus mechanism Proof of High Confidence (POHC), the detection nodes maintain BC-DSDB independently. To regulate the rational utilization of electromagnetic spectrum resources, we propose the Spectrum Resource Currency (SRC) to evaluate the priority of the secondary user (SU) for dynamic spectrum access. When a spectrum collision event occurs between SUs, the spectrum time slice resources can be allocated according to the SRC. The experimental results show that BC-DSDB accurately describes the distribution of electromagnetic spectrum resources based on the propagation loss characteristics. At the same time, the redundancy of spectral data storage is reduced. SUs can quickly formulate dynamic spectrum access policies based on BC-DSDB and SRC in distributed cognitive radio networks.
Esraa M. Ghourab, Lina Bariah, Sami Muhaidat, Paschalis C. Sofotasios · 6 authors
The ever-increasing demand for high-data services and the emergence of new use cases with stringent latency, spectral, and energy efficiency requirements present new challenges for 6G networks and necessitate the development of novel solutions to address these issues. Therefore, in this paper, we present a flexible cognitive radio (CR) architecture for establishing and maintaining a resilient network. The network is managed by a novel situational blockchain-based framework that dynamically reprograms the network topology and transmitted data types (real/fake) at runtime to enable a moving-target defense (MtD) approach against attacks and failures. The presented solution has been mathematically modeled and analyzed. Simulation results demonstrates the superiority of the proposed system in terms of security, credibility, and integrity.
Md Sipon Miah, Md. Shamim Hossain, Ana García Armada
Cognitive radio has been established as an optimal solution to enhance spectrum usage proficiency and compensate the growing spectrum scarcity for wireless multimedia communications by acquiring opportunistic access to temporarily unoccupied radio spectrum resources, which arise as a core aspect of the Internet of Things (IoT). Malicious cognitive users attack and single factor failure centralized Fusion Center (FC) architecture are important problems for handling the huge volume of spectrum sensing data created in the Cognitive Radio-based IoT (CR-IoT) network. The centralized FC is also facing many challenges, including security, privacy, trustworthiness issues, and vulnerability to attack. To address the weakness of a centralized FC, many scholars proposed a blockchain-based dynamic spectrum access framework. In the blockchain network mining and updating sensing, and access results are stored in a distributed and secure manner without the need for an FC. Nonetheless, the selfish mining or Denial of Service (DoS) attack for accessing the spectrum holes singly or disrupting the spectrum access is caused by the malicious users. To cope with the mentioned problems, we propose an intelligent Machine Learning (ML) model that identifies and clusters malicious CR-IoT users and a blockchain technology that designs a secure framework for efficient spectrum usage and sharing. Each cognitive user acts as a sensing node and mining node in the blockchain-enabled CR-IoT network. Before the Cooperative Spectrum Sensing (CSS) and mining process, cognitive users will be properly organized. Simply, CSS approaches and secured spectrum access are incentivized just by the optimized cognitive user group. The extensive experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed ML model in a blockchain-enabled CR-IoT network.
A blockchain based security improvement as well as spectrum sensing technique is proposed in this article for regulating the spectrum and identifying fraudulent users in the cognitive radio (CR) wireless networks. Spectrum sensing is a key need in the CR wireless networks, and it gets infected by the fraudulent user. The fraudulent user is disrupting the reliability of the system performance by targeting the network’s overall signal detection. The presence of a fraudulent user in CR wireless networks causes incorrect detecting data to be transmitted, lowering the system’s performance. The CR wireless network achieves blockchain based security and spectrum sensing, enhancing system performance. An energy detection technique is used to identify the fraudulent user in the CR wireless networks using the blockchain oriented approach. Performance measures such as probability of detection, and number of chosen sensing nodes are used to assess the suggested approach. Existing techniques like Tidal Trust and Friend or Foe Algorithm are compared with the suggested method.
Lina Al‐Sahan, Noureddine Lasla, Mohamed Abdallah, Bo Wang
Abstract The licensed band is crowded and suffers from immense mobile data traffic growth, which exceeded 58 exabytes per month in 5 years. Meanwhile, a significant portion of the unlicensed band is underutilized and not coordinated efficiently. Experiments in some urban areas of the world have shown that only 5% of the unlicensed 5 GHz band is being used. 5G NR‐U technology supports 5G networks in the unlicensed band to alleviate the traffic congestion and boosts 5G networks capacity. Different heterogeneous network access technologies already use the unlicensed band. Consequently, 5G NR‐U networks will operate in the proximity of the other coexisting networks, such as WiFi networks in the 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands. In such environments, assessing the shared spectrum becomes challenging and necessitates adequate protocols to identify idle slots for successful transmissions. Cooperative Spectrum Sensing (CSS) improves the spectrum assessment process, as the decision about the spectrum state is rendered based on the local decisions of multiple sensing nodes. CSS is exploited by integrating it with Blockchain technology to design a decentralized cooperative spectrum management system called: Blockchain‐Based Cooperative Spectrum Management (BCSM). The system is attributed to ameliorating 5G NR‐U awareness about the neighboring WiFi networks traffic in the unlicensed band. An algorithm is designed for performing distributed cooperative spectrum assessment between the 5G NR‐U base stations to profile the WiFi networks traffic in their proximity. To ensure fairness based on the effort expended in assessing the spectrum, a priority‐based algorithm is designed for spectrum access scheduling. A proof‐of‐concept is implemented using private Ethereum Blockchain and NS3 simulator. Finally, the system's accuracy is evaluated empirically along with theoretical security analysis.
To achieve more advanced mobile communication systems such as 5G, utilizing existing spectrum resources is effective. Therefore, many studies on spectrum sharing technology are being conducted. On the other hand, blockchain is getting attention as a highly reliable management method for distributed data. Blockchain is expected to be used in many ways other than financial services, and proposals have been made to use it for spectrum sharing. This paper gives an overview of leading spectrum sharing technology researches using blockchain. It also introduces the autonomous distributed dynamic spectrum sharing we proposed. Then we propose such spectrum sharing technology using smart contracts. This technology was achieved in an open environment, which has been attracting attention recently. This paper shows how to implement the spectrum sharing system in O-RAN environment. We also propose to use CA to utilize the shared spectrum in O-RAN environment. We implemented smart contracts and evaluated it. This paper discusses its use cases and the impact of the features related to smart contracts based on the evaluation results.
Spectrum sensing is the key technology of cognitive radio. In this article, we apply blockchain technology in spectrum sensing process and propose a related algorithm based on reputation. The algorithm builds a system model based on smart contract in blockchain and applies blockchain asymmetric encryption algorithm and digital signature technology in the process of secondary users’ transmitting local judgments to the secondary user base station. The algorithm can resist spectrum sensing data falsification (SSDF) attack launched by malicious users. This article comprehensively considers the channel error rate, detection probability, secondary user base station budget and remaining energy of the secondary users (SUs) and then establishes the SU’s utility function as well as the game model. By solving the Nash equilibrium, the SU determines whether it uploads sensing data. Finally, the SU base station selects registered SUs by calculating and updating their reputation, obtaining the final judgment by voting rule. With simulations, we prove that the algorithm proposed in this article increases the accuracy and security of spectrum sensing and can effectively resist SSDF attack.
The rapidly growing number of Internet-of-Things (IoT) devices poses new challenges for spectrum management in future wireless communication networks. It is critical to achieve efficient and dynamic spectrum management in the sixth-generation (6G) wireless communication networks era. To tackle the challenges of managing a large-scale IoT network with heterogeneous devices, we propose a directed acyclic graph (DAG) blockchain-enhanced user-autonomy spectrum sharing model. As the proposed consensus rule is closely related to system utility, the swarm intelligence of users gradually reaches the point of convergence in the process of blockchain consensus. We analyze the effect of the tip selection method of the DAG blockchain on spectrum allocation utility. A dynamic tip selection method is proposed to enhance the global utility, which is related to the spectrum supply–demand. In addition, the ring signature technique is utilized to realize privacy protection during the sharing process. Simulation indicates that the proposed tip selection method achieves a 10% enhancement in terms of the global utility. Furthermore, significant reductions in administrative expense and reliability improvement are demonstrated by simulation results. The stability of the tip number in the proposed model has been proved theoretically, which is also validated by simulation experiments.
Rongbo Zhu, Hao Liu, Lu Liu, Xiaozhu Liu · 6 authors
With the access of massive mobile devices, spectrum resources are becoming increasingly scarce. How to effectively and securely utilize the limited spectrum resources has become a fundamental challenge for future mobile communication systems. Focusing on intelligent sensing and sharing, this article proposes a blockchain-based two-stage secure spectrum intelligent sensing and sharing auction mechanism (BISA), which selects appropriate base stations to form a consortium blockchain to guarantee secure and efficient spectrum auction with low complexity. In the first stage, a reverse-auction-based incentive mechanism is presented to provide bidding strategies for the primary users (PUs) and secondary users (SUs) selecting the PU that maximizes the utility. In the second stage, a unit-utility-based auction algorithm is proposed to achieve a stable match between PUs and SUs. PUs will select the SU with the maximum unit utility to complete the auction. Then, the transaction records are formed into blocks and uploaded to guarantee the security of transactions. Simulation results show that, compared with the existing methods, the proposed BISA increases the total utility and throughput of SUs by 216.4% and 189.3%, respectively.
Matthew K. Luka, Okpo U. Okereke, Elijah E. Omizegba, Ejike C. Anene
Regulatory radio spectrum management is evolving from traditional static frequency allocation and assignment schemes towards dynamic spectrum management and access schemes. This evolution is necessitated by a number of factors including underutilization of licensed spectrum bands, changing market and technological developments and increased demand for spectrum for emerging applications in multimedia communications, internet-of-things and fifth generation (5G) wireless networks. In simple terms dynamic spectrum management involves allowing unlicensed users known as secondary users (SUs) to access the licensed spectrum of a licensed user also known as primary user (PU). This is primarily achieved using spectrum sharing schemes that leverage spectrum database and cognitive radio techniques. However, the use of spectrum database and cognitive radio techniques faces reliability, security and privacy concerns for spectrum sharing. There is also a need to support other requirements of dynamic spectrum management such as secondary spectrum trading market and dynamic spectrum access coordination. In this work, we review the use of blockchains for enabling spectrum sharing and other aspects of dynamic spectrum management. The review covers the use of blockchain to record spectrum management information such as spectrum sensing results and spectrum auction transactions in a secure manner. The article also covers the use of smart contracts to support complex service-levelagreements (SLAs) between network operators which is key to supporting a self-organized secondary spectrum sharing market and enforcement of regulatory policies. A taxonomy of the intersection between blockchain and various concepts of dynamic spectrum management is also provided
Spectrum is a kind of non-reproducible scarce strategic resource. A secure wideband spectrum sensing technology provides the possibility for the next generation of ultra-dense, ultra-large-capacity communications to realize the shared utilization of spectrum resources. However, for the open collaborative sensing in cognitive radio networks, the collusion attacks of malicious users greatly affect the accuracy of the sensing results and the security of the entire network. To address this problem, this paper proposes a weighted fusion decision algorithm by using the blockchain technology. The proposed algorithm divides the single-node reputation into active reputation and passive reputation. Through the proposed token threshold concept, the active reputation is set to increase the malicious cost of the node; the passive reputation of the node is determined according to the historical data and recent performance of the blockchain. The final node weight is obtained by considering both kinds of reputation. The proposed scheme can build a trust-free platform for the cognitive radio collaborative networks. Compared with the traditional equal-gain combination algorithm and the centralized sensing algorithm based on the beta reputation system, the simulation results show that the proposed algorithm can obtain reliable sensing results with a lower number of assistants and sampling rate, and can effectively resist malicious users’ collusion attacks. Therefore, the security and the accuracy of cooperative spectrum sensing can be significantly improved in cognitive radio networks.
The ever-developing 5G and Internet of Things (IoT) technology has recently drawn increased attention to the use and management of underutilized spectrum. Blockchain is a good potential solution, however, the Nakamoto consensus-based scheme has a low spectrum utilization rate, high transaction delay, and a huge waste of energy. In this paper, we present a novel decentralized distributed spectrum trading protocol STBC (Spectrum Trading Blockchain) base on blockchain, which explicitly aims for efficiency, simplicity, safety, and energy-saving. STBC uses a new consensus mechanism to quickly confirm transactions while tolerating up to${n}$/3 malicious nodes (${n}$is the total number of nodes), and its implementation code is very concise. We adopt the similar idea of sharding to improve the efficiency and scalability of the system. Due to the specificality of spectrum trading, it is necessary to protect the privacy of trading nodes. Therefore we propose a temporarily anonymous transaction that can effectively prevent DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) attack. Moreover, theoretical analysis shows that STBC is also secure against mainstream attacks such as double-spending attacks and the power consumption of STBC is significantly less than the Nakamoto consensus-based scheme. The prototype evaluation of our protocol demonstrates that it improves the spectrum utilization by about 30% compared with the state-of-the-art blockchain spectrum trading schemes, and meanwhile reducing the transaction confirmation delay by about 12.5x.
Wireless network virtualization is a promising solution to improve spectrum efficiency. For a wireless downlink communication system with multiple mobile virtual network operators (MVNOs), we propose a decentralized blockchain-based dynamic spectrum acquisition scheme. Our proposed scheme aims to minimize the sum transmit power at all MVNOs while satisfying the average data transmission rate thresholds. For each MVNO, the required wireless spectrum to provide customized services to the mobile users (MUs) is predicted using the half-range Gauss-Hermite quadrature. Based on the predicted values, all the MVNOs carry out a blockchain-based distributed alternative direction method of multipliers to obtain the global optimal solution to the aforementioned sum transmit power minimization problem. To examine the effectiveness of our proposed scheme, with known system parameters, we also theoretically derive the semi-closed-form solution to the actually required sum transmit power minimization problem subject to data transmission rate constraints. Simulation results illustrate that our proposed dynamic spectrum acquisition scheme achieves almost the same minimum sum power as the non-causal scheme, which assumes the number of active MUs in all cells and all the channels are known non-causally for the optimal dynamic spectrum allocation.
The convergence of dynamic spectrum access (DSA) and blockchain has been regarded as the new paradigm of spectrum management. Because of the inherent properties of blockchain, such as decentralization and tamper-resistance, the deployment of blockchain in future networks has advantages to address problems exposed in traditional centralized spectrum management systems, such as high security risk and low allocation efficiency. In this article, we first compare blockchain-based spectrum management with the traditional centralized approach and then present a reference architecture for blockchain-based spectrum management. In particular, we propose an interference-based consensus mechanism, which can be employed to improve transaction efficiency and reduce system overhead while promoting spectrum sharing. The proposed consensus mechanism is based on the comparison of aggregated interference experienced by each node, such that the node that suffers the most aggregated interference will obtain the accounting right as a compensation. Furthermore, to avoid harmful interference caused by spectrum traders, an interference-based transaction validation mechanism is designed to validate the spectrum transactions stored in the blocks. Different from existing transaction validation mechanisms in which every transaction needs to be validated by all nodes, a “transaction validation area” is determined for each spectrum transaction, and only the nodes located in the validation area need to validate the transaction. The simulation results show that the system fairness and nodes’ signal-to-interference-and-noise power ratio (SINR) can be improved by adopting the proposed mechanisms while reducing the system overhead.
Dynamic spectrum access (DSA) is crucial to improve the utilization efficiency of the limited and precious radio spectrum resources. Recently, the application of blockchain is proposed to improve the security, distribution and transparency of DSA. However, in opportunistic spectrum access (OSA), the implementation of blockchain consumes considerable amount time in each time slot so that the time left for spectrum sensing and access will be decreased. Therefore, in this letter, we aim to optimize the frame structure regarding the sensing time and mining time so that the average achievable throughput is maximized. We first decouple the original optimization problem into two sub-optimization problems with respect to sensing time and mining time, respectively, and then prove that there exists a unique maximum point for both the two sub-optimization problems. After that, an alternating algorithm is proposed for the optimization. Using the simulations, the sensing-mining-access tradeoff and effectiveness of our proposed algorithm to optimize such a tradeoff are illustrated.
Abstract In recent times, spectrum sensing and spectrum management become a crucial design issue in cognitive radio networks (CRN). To improve the spectrum utilization in CRN, the secondary users (SUs) will try to utilize the spectrum resource when it is unoccupied by the authorized primary users (PUs). At the same time, blockchain principle has been introduced to efficiently identify the legitimate SUs and allocate the spectrum resource as per the demand specified by the SUs. In this view, this article presents a new machine learning (ML) with blockchain‐based spectrum management technique in CRN. The proposed model undergoes three processes, namely spectrum sensing, blockchain‐based spectrum access, and malicious user (MU) identification. Initially, ML‐based extreme learning machine (ELM) technique is applied for spectrum sensing. Then, the presented blockchain approach provides secured spectrum allocation for SUs. Finally, the MUs are identified and to be blocked from accessing the available spectrum resource. An extensive simulation analysis is carried out to ensure the goodness of the proposed model. The obtained results indicated that the proposed model has offered better performance compared with other methods. The experimental outcome stated that under the presence of −20 dB SNR, the proposed method has attained a maximum detection rate of 0.68, whereas the KNN and OR rule methods have demonstrated a minimum detection rate of 0.58 and 0.5, respectively.
Taras Maksymyuk, Juraj Gazda, Marcel Vološin, Gabriel Bugár · 7 authors
Mobile network evolution beyond 5G requires a complete rethink of spectrum management. To fulfill unprecedented performance expectations, future 6G networks require fine-grained spectrum sharing in terms of volume, time, and usage area. In this article, we study a novel direction for blockchain integration into the mobile network infrastructure. In particular, we discuss the potential benefits and challenges of the proposed architecture in terms of spectrum and infrastructure sharing. The key implementation aspects of blockchain for 6G, such as a tokenization model for spectrum and infrastructure, the distributed ledger structure, and feasible consensus algorithms, are studied in detail. Finally, we implement three types of smart contracts for service provisioning with semi-persistent, dynamic, and intelligent spectrum trading and analyze the number of transactions for each type. The simulation results show that the average throughput in the case of intelligent spectrum trading is 7 percent higher than that of the semi-persistent trading and 4 percent lower than that of the dynamic trading. From the economic perspective of operators, intelligent trading provides 19 percent more profit than semi-persistent trading and 8 percent less profit than intelligent trading. Intelligent trading also has much lower overhead in the blockchain than dynamic trading, while being very close to the lowest overhead of semi-persistent trading.
Mubbashar Altaf Khan, Mohsin M. Jamali, Taras Maksymyuk, Juraj Gazda
Cognitive radio (CR) technology offers the possibility of an increase in spectrum utilization efficiency to resolve the prevalent spectrum scarcity problem. The economic survival of secondary spectrum markets (SSMs) is heavily dependent on the sharing of both the licensed spectrum and spectrum infrastructure by primary licensed operators (PLOs). In this research, an automated pricing model using a blockchain token called the spectrum dollar has been implemented for secondary radio spectrum trade. The use of spectrum dollars enables noncash-based secondary spectrum trade among PLOs based on a floor-and-trade rule. The pricing of spectrum dollars and the associated revenue shares are based on the underlying secondary spectrum trading behaviours of PLOs. PLOs that do not contribute enough secondary spectra to the SSM (to satisfy demand) suffer a loss proportional to the difference between their earned revenues and the specified floor value in the SSM. The secondary spectrum trade is assumed to be centrally managed by a spectrum broker, which announces the floor value for each bidding period while ensuring nonnegative revenue for the market itself. The use of the spectrum dollar along with the floor-and-trade methodology eliminates the possibilities for economic malpractice by PLOs that could increase spectrum reuse costs. In addition, the floor value provides automatic regulatory control to ensure the economic viability and prevent the technological hijacking of future SSMs.
This paper proposes a blockchain-based automated frequency coordination system (BAFCS) for secure and reliable spectrum sharing without causing any harmful interference to an existing system. For the exact assessment of whether the incumbent is interfered with by the spectrum sharer, the received signal strength (RSS) associated with the incumbent should be measured with sufficient accuracy at every location within the area of interest. However, since it requires brute force to carry out empirical measurements around an entire region, to lessen the burden, only the confined portion of the RSSs associated with the incumbent as a kind of primary user are observed and the omitted residuals are conventionally estimated by carrying out the well-known Kriging interpolation with regard to the geostatistical characteristics. This paper proposes a frequency coordination system capable of identifying whether a requested frequency band can be eligible for spectrum sharing while exchanging adequate information over blockchain network to confirm the usability. This paper proposes the Support Vector Machine (SVM)-based Kriging interpolation for recapitulating the radio environment map (REM) when only a fraction of the RSS measurements is acquired by the voluntary sensing participant (VSP). The nonparametric modeling approach for variograms proposed in this paper was determined to have a vital role in making a confident decision regarding spectrum sharing. The simulation result confirmed the effectiveness and the superiority of the proposed BAFCS with several affirmative features, such as enabling the consensus-based approval of spectrum sharing, the secure transaction of the information, and reliable assurance of no harmful interference.
Open access
Distributed Sensor Networks and Detection Algorithms