Konstantinos Sgantzos, Ian Grigg, Mohamed Al Hemairy
Most Artificial Intelligence (AI) implementations so far are based on the exploration of how the human brain is designed. Nevertheless, while significant progress is shown on specialized tasks, creating an Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) remains elusive. This manuscript proposes that instead of asking how the brain is constructed, the main question should be how it was evolved. Since neurons can be understood as intelligent agents, intelligence can be thought of as a construct of multiple agents working and evolving together as a society, within a long-term memory and evolution context. More concretely, we suggest placing Multiple Neighborhood Cellular Automata (MNCA) on a blockchain with an interaction protocol and incentives to create an AGI. Given that such a model could become a “strong” AI, we present the conjecture that this infrastructure is possible to simulate the properties of cognition as an emergent phenomenon.
We propose N-choice game (NCG), a decentralized pseudo-random number generation method that can be executed on smart contracts. Of the M participants, one is a dealer, and the rest are players, each with a different role. Each participant randomly chooses one value between 0 and N − 1 and receives a score determined by the NCG rule. The amount of reward each participant receives is determined by the score. The values chosen by the participants are combined and hashed into a pseudo-random number. The NCG framework is designed to achieve the following three goals: (1) Incentivize participants to provide random choices, (2) Evaluate the level of randomness in the decentralized environment, and (3) Establish high performance. We implement the NCG framework in Solidity and evaluate its performance. Our extensive experiments revealed that unless more than 90% of NCG players collide, the generated random numbers have high randomness that can pass the NIST randomness test. The experiments also demonstrated that the throughput of random number generation in NCG was 129 times faster than in the existing framework, Random Bit Generator [2].
Open access
Chaos-based Image/Signal Encryption
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
It has been proposed in the literature that the volume of Einstein-Rosen bridge is equal to complexity of state preparation ("Complexity=Volume" conjecture). Taking this statement outside the horizon, one might be tempted to propose "Complexity=Time" correspondence. In this Essay we argue that in a blockchain protocol, which is the foundation of all modern cryptocurrencies, time is emergent and it is defined according to a version of "Complexity=Time".
A random beacon provides a continuous public source of randomness and its applications range from public lotteries to zero-knowledge proofs. Existing random beacon protocols sacrifice either the fault tolerance or the communication complexity for security, or ease of reconfigurability. This work overcomes the challenges with the existing works through a novel communication efficient combination of state machine replication and (Publicly) Verifiable Secret Sharing (PVSS/VSS).
Yeow Meng Chee, Tuvi Etzion, Han Mao Kiah, Alexander Vardy
<p style='text-indent:20px;'>The Hamming ball of radius <inline-formula><tex-math id="M1">\begin{document}$ w $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula> in <inline-formula><tex-math id="M2">\begin{document}$ \{0,1\}^n $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula> is the set <inline-formula><tex-math id="M3">\begin{document}$ \mathcal{B}(n,w) $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula> of all binary words of length <inline-formula><tex-math id="M4">\begin{document}$ n $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula> and Hamming weight at most <inline-formula><tex-math id="M5">\begin{document}$ w $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula>. We consider injective mappings <inline-formula><tex-math id="M6">\begin{document}$ \varphi : \{0,1\}^m \to \mathcal{B}(n,w) $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula> with the following <i>domination property:</i> every position <inline-formula><tex-math id="M7">\begin{document}$ j \in [n] $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula> is dominated by some position <inline-formula><tex-math id="M8">\begin{document}$ i \in [m] $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula>, in the sense that if position <inline-formula><tex-math id="M9">\begin{document}$ i $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula> in <inline-formula><tex-math id="M10">\begin{document}$ {\mathit{\boldsymbol{x}}} \in \{0,1\}^m $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula> is "switched off" (equal <i>zero</i>), then necessarily position <inline-formula><tex-math id="M11">\begin{document}$ j $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula> in its image <inline-formula><tex-math id="M12">\begin{document}$ \varphi({\mathit{\boldsymbol{x}}}) $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula> is switched off. This property may be described more precisely in terms of a bipartite <i>domination graph</i> <inline-formula><tex-math id="M13">\begin{document}$ G = \bigl([m] \cup [n], E\bigr) $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula> with no isolated vertices; for all <inline-formula><tex-math id="M14">\begin{document}$ (i,j) \in E $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula> and all <inline-formula><tex-math id="M15">\begin{document}$ {\mathit{\boldsymbol{x}}}\in \{0,1\}^m $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula>, we require that <inline-formula><tex-math id="M16">\begin{document}$ x_i = 0 $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula> implies <inline-formula><tex-math id="M17">\begin{document}$ y_j = 0 $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula>, where <inline-formula><tex-math id="M18">\begin{document}$ {\mathit{\boldsymbol{y}}} = \varphi({\mathit{\boldsymbol{x}}}) $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula>. Although such domination mappings recently found applications in the context of coding for high-performance interconnects, to the best of our knowledge, they were not previously studied. The concept of domination mapping is thus interesting from both practical and combinatorial points of view. <p style='text-indent:20px;'>In this paper, we begin with simple necessary conditions for the existence of an <i><inline-formula><tex-math id="M19">\begin{document}$ (m,n,w) $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula>-domination mapping <inline-formula><tex-math id="M20">\begin{document}$ \varphi : \{0,1\}^m \to \mathcal{B}(n,w) $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula></i>. We then provide several explicit constructions of such mappings, which show that the necessary conditions are also sufficient when <inline-formula><tex-math id="M21">\begin{document}$ w = 1 $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula>, when <inline-formula><tex-math id="M22">\begin{document}$ w = 2 $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula> and <inline-formula><tex-math id="M23">\begin{document}$ m $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula> is odd, or when <inline-formula><tex-math id="M24">\begin{document}$ m \leqslant 3w $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula>. One of our main results herein is a proof that the trivial necessary condition <inline-formula><tex-math id="M25">\begin{document}$ | \mathcal{B}(n,w)| \geqslant 2^m $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula> is, in fact, sufficient for the existence of an <inline-formula><tex-math id="M26">\begin{document}$ (m,n,w) $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula>-domination mapping whenever <inline-formula><tex-math id="M27">\begin{document}$ m $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula> is sufficiently large. We also present a polynomial-time algorithm that, given any <inline-formula><tex-math id="M28">\begin{document}$ m $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula>, <inline-formula><tex-math id="M29">\begin{document}$ n $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula>, and <inline-formula><tex-math id="M30">\begin{document}$ w $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula>, determines whether an <inline-formula><tex-math id="M31">\begin{document}$ (m,n,w) $\end{document}</tex-math></inline-formula>-domination mapping exists for a domination graph with an equitable degree distribution.
Classical cryptography has been around for a long time in the documented human history, but most classical ciphers were broken and even solved by hand. Shannon introduced the notion of perfect secrecy that formally defines confidentiality in the information-theoretic sense, which is only possible in the restricted scenarios where the message is no longer than the encryption key. The invention of public-key cryptography (the Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol in 1976 and the RSA crypto-system in 1977) marks the birth of modern cryptography, allowing parties to exchange messages securely without sharing any secrets in advance. Furthermore, it provides computational security based on the conjectured hardness of mathematical problems such as factorization and the discrete logarithm. Public-key cryptography has found numerous applications in the Internet, financial and banking industry, and blockchains, and it plays a crucial role in protecting information security and asset safety. Unfortunately, in the 1990s, Shor proposed efficient quantum algorithms that solve number-theoretic problems, including factorization and discrete logarithms in polynomial time. Once a quantum computer of a particular scale becomes a reality, it will cause a devastating blow to the existing public-key infrastructure. To deal with such a ‘quantum crisis’, academia and industry are looking into the design, analysis and standardization of cryptographic algorithms that can resist quantum computers referred to as post-quantum cryptography (PQC). The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has been soliciting proposals for the post-quantum public-key algorithms since 2016. More recently, the Chinese Association for Cryptologic Research (CACR) held a competition on designing cryptographic algorithms whose public-key cryptography track focused on post-quantum cryptographic algorithms. Lattice-based cryptography is considered by most to be the mainstream technical route of post-quantum cryptography, which is reflected in the number of proposals (and their percentage of the total) received in the NIST PQC process. To reflect the status quo of post-quantum cryptography, we invite leading experts in this area to contribute three technical perspectives that aim to help readers understand the algorithms, the underlying basic techniques and different technical routes to achieve quantum resistance. The first perspective, presented by Lu and Zhang, introduces public-key cryptographic algorithms whose quantum security is reducible from the conjectured quantum hardness of lattice problems. In particular, they mainly focus on public-key encryption (PKE) and the key encapsulation mechanism (KEM), which are essential building blocks for securing the confidentiality of communication without pre-shared secrets. Both types of crypto-systems are solicited by the NIST PQC standardization and the CACR algorithm design competition. This perspective gives a comprehensive survey on practical lattice-based PKEs/KEMs, and their best-known quantum and classical attacks. Another important post-quantum crypto-system is digital signature, which ensures that three goals of information security are met other than confidentiality, namely, integrity, authentication and non-repudiation. The second perspective is on lattice-based signature by Lyubashevsky. In this perspective, he surveys different techniques in building lattice-based post-quantum crypto-systems, discusses the challenges in overcoming performance issues and gives us state-of-the-art digital signature schemes. In addition to ensuring the ‘static’ security of information in storage and transmission, advanced cryptographic algorithms and protocols can guarantee information security during the computation process (possibly among multiple parties), referred to as privacy-preserving computation. Cryptographic techniques involved in privacy-preserving computation include secure multi-party computation, zero-knowledge proof and fully homomorphic encryption. There is a pressing need to migrate them to the post-quantum era. The third perspective, by Yu and Xie, presents practical instantiations of these algorithms and discusses possible ways to migrate them to their quantum-resistant counterparts. To summarize, post-quantum cryptography has received widespread attention and made significant progress in recent years. Some post-quantum cryptographic algorithms, such as the lattice-based candidate, also have other advantages (e.g., computational efficiency and full homomorphism) over their classical counterparts. Lattice-based cryptography is an emerging field with high theoretical value and wide application, and we encourage young researchers to enter and explore this new and exciting field.
Yield farming has been an immensely popular activity for cryptocurrency holders since the explosion of Decentralized Finance (DeFi) in the summer of 2020. In this Systematization of Knowledge (SoK), we study a general framework for yield farming strategies with empirical analysis. First, we summarize the fundamentals of yield farming by focusing on the protocols and tokens used by aggregators. We then examine the sources of yield and translate those into three example yield farming strategies, followed by the simulations of yield farming performance, based on these strategies. We further compare four major yield aggregrators -- Idle, Pickle, Harvest and Yearn -- in the ecosystem, along with brief introductions of others. We systematize their strategies and revenue models, and conduct an empirical analysis with on-chain data from example vaults, to find a plausible connection between data anomalies and historical events. Finally, we discuss the benefits and risks of yield aggregators.
Factors affecting the reliability of data transmission in networks with nodes with periodic availability were considered. The principles of data transfer between robots are described; the need for global connectivity of communications within an autonomous system is shown, since the non-availability of information on the intentions of other robots reduces the effectiveness of the robotics system as a whole and affects the fault tolerance of a team of independent actors performing distributed activities. It is shown that the existing solutions to the problem of data exchange based on general-purpose IP networks have drawbacks; therefore, as the basis for organizing autonomous robot networks, we used developments in the domain of topological models of communication systems allowing us to build self-organizing computer networks. The requirements for the designed network for reliable message transfer between autonomous robots are listed, the option of organizing reliable message delivery using overlay networks, which expand the functionality of underlying networks, is selected. An overview of existing popular controlled and non-controlled overlay networks is given; their applicability for communication within a team of autonomous robots is evaluated. The features and specifics of data transfer in a team of autonomous robots are listed. The algorithms and architecture of the overlay self-organizing network were described by means of generally accepted methods of constructing decentralized networks with zero configurations. As a result of the work, general principles of operation of the designed network were proposed, the message structure for the delivery algorithm was described; two independent data streams were created, i.e. service and payload; an algorithm for sending messages between network nodes and an algorithm for collecting and synchronizing the global network status were developed. In order to increase the dependability and fault tolerance of the network, it is proposed to store the global network status at each node. The principles of operation of a distributed storage are described. For the purpose of notification on changes in the global status of the network, it is proposed to use an additional data stream for intra-network service messages. A flood routing algorithm was developed to reduce delays and speed up the synchronization of the global status of a network and consistency maintenance. It is proposed to provide network connectivity using the HELLO protocol to establish and maintain adjacency relations between network nodes. The paper provides examples of adding and removing network nodes, examines possible scalability problems of the developed overlay network and methods for solving them. It confirms the criteria and indicators for achieving the effect of self-organization of nodes in the network. The designed network is compared with existing alternatives. For the developed algorithms, examples of latency estimates in message delivery are given. The theoretical limitations of the overlay network in the presence of intentional and unintentional defects are indicated; an example of restoring the network after a failure is set forth.
This paper proposes transparent blockchain codes to distribute blockchain history. The history data on each node is uncoded (transparent), but entire data obeys the soliton distribution. It not only keeps decentralization, but also brings low bandwidth consumption and good scalability
This paper proposes an analytical approach how to design and realize a crypto computing (Ethereum blockchain-based) under stringent real-time requirement. In order to evaluate the efficacy of the approach, a new analytical metric is defined and developed to estimate the dependability, referred to as the block-dependability. The proposed block-dependability precisely models the probability for the pending transactions to be posted within the current, in other words, within the target block delay, namely, within the deadline required if their expected execution times are within the temporal range of the deadline. Various methods how to prioritize and select transactions in the pending transaction pool in order to facilitate those transactions to be executed within their deadline requirements, such as the normal, random, sorted, and stratified, are proposed and simulated. A set of performance variables, or parameters, such as the number of pending transactions in the pool, the average speed of the transactions, gas fees, deadlines as well as the number of miners, are identified and taken into the block-dependability in order to reveal the influence of each variable on the block-dependability, versus each of those proposed prioritization and selection methods. Extensive parametric simulations are conducted and results are observed and discussed in the cases of the random transaction selection method and the sorted.
In recent years, with Bitcoin taking the lead, the blockchain technology has been put in the spotlight as it introduced a method for multiple parties to achieve consensus without trust. Nevertheless, the according application is constrained due to its limitations in scalability. In this paper, we proposed a highly scalable consensus model based on majority voting cellular automata, namely the MOCA consensus, with a distinctive blockchain-based distributed ledger in which the state change of each node depends on its neighbors. MOCA consensus origins from the zero-temperature Ising model with spontaneous magnetization achieving scalability of number of nodes with high probability Byzantine fault tolerance.
Benjamin Hellouin de Ménibus, Ville Salo, Guillaume Theyssier
Abelian cellular automata (CAs) are CAs which are group endomorphisms of the full group shift when endowing the alphabet with an abelian group structure. A CA randomizes an initial probability measure if its iterated images have weak*-convergence towards the uniform Bernoulli measure (the Haar measure in this setting). We are interested in structural phenomena, i.e., randomization for a wide class of initial measures (under some mixing hypotheses). First, we prove that an abelian CA randomizes in Cesàro mean if and only if it has no soliton, i.e., a non-zero finite configuration whose time evolution remains bounded in space. This characterization generalizes previously known sufficient conditions for abelian CAs with scalar or commuting coefficients. Second, we exhibit examples of strong randomizers, i.e., abelian CAs randomizing in simple convergence; this is the first proof of this behaviour to our knowledge. We show, however, that no CA with commuting coefficients can be strongly randomizing. Finally, we show that some abelian CAs achieve partial randomization without being randomizing: the distribution of short finite words tends to the uniform distribution up to some threshold, but this convergence fails for larger words. Again this phenomenon cannot happen for abelian CAs with commuting coefficients.
Beltrán Borja Fiz Pontiveros, Robert Norvill, Radu State
In this work we propose a compression method for smart contracts deployed in the Ethereum blockchain. By taking advantage of the repetition of sections of bytecode among multiple smart contracts previously deployed in the Ethereum blockchain we propose a new pseudo opcode that acts as a pointer that will allow smart contracts to reuse previously deployed code. We show that our proposed algorithm achieves space savings of up to 75% in a dataset of deployed Ethereum smart contracts bytecode, on par with other state of the art compression algorithms while remaining compatible with other methods currently in use for space reduction.
We present a formalization of blockchain as a state machine, focusing upon permissionless blockchains due to general audience awareness of its most popular implementation, Bitcoin (permissioned blockchains are treated similarly without loss of generality). After presenting a typical Bitcoin transaction workflow, a general blockchain state representation is derived. It is demonstrated that the proper mathematical object defining the state of a blockchain is a topological fiber bundle, because it is not possible to globally `parametrize' blocks (or ledgers of blocks) by time due to their dependence upon cryptographic hash functions. In addition, we specify a general transition function between blockchain states that is agnostic to the consensus mechanism used to write blocks into the ledger, and which is probabilistic in nature, so that blockchain may be regarded as a probabilistic state machine. We then interpret agents (both human and code-based, such as `chaincode', `smart contracts', or other artificial intelligence) as automata interacting with blockchain technology, drawing upon the theory of non-cooperative repeated interaction games. Finally, blockchain as a hierarchy of state machines is defined, and future research directions are presented using this hierarchy as a point of departure for modeling blockchain dynamics.
Payment channels secured with cryptocurrency as collateral enable users to make many transactions with few blockchain broadcasts. Networks of payment channels have emerged as a proposed solution to Bitcoin’s scaling problem. Since the proposal of the first payment channel network, the Lightning Network, alternatives promising significant improvements, such as the Sprites protocol, have been proposed. Without at-scale implementations to analyze in situ, it is difficult to make meaningful comparisons of payment channel network protocols. In order to bridge this gap, we introduce a new simulation framework that can be used to evaluate how different payment channel network protocols will perform in both the expected and worst cases. \n \nOur framework is generic and accommodates benchmarking across different variants of payment channel network protocols, network topologies, routing algorithms, and user behaviors. User spending behavior in our payment channel network simulator is generated based on behavioral modeling techniques used in credit card fraud research. Our simulation is the first payment channel network simulator to seed user behaviors with data from real-world credit card users. \n \nOur framework can be used to evaluate expected case performance and resiliency to attacks across different payment channel network protocols and routing algorithms. We demonstrate the utility of our framework through comparisons of the Lightning Network to Sprites. We also compare the proposed decentralized routing algorithm, Flare, to an ideal centralized routing algorithm. Our results reveal that if spending behaviors are similar to those of credit card users, scale-free network topologies achieve higher throughput and resiliency compared to small-world networks. We also confirm that the Sprites protocol enjoys numerous advantages over the Lightning Network including smaller durations, shorter path length payments, and greater resiliency, all of which are most significant in decentralized topologies using decentralized routing algorithms.
This paper examines the current state of smart homes and proposes an alternative model based on biomimicry. It is argued that a house that is modeled on a basic living organism will be more efficient for the inhabitants, and more effective to insulate them from the unpredictable effects of climate change in the near future. By using an organism as a model, the house will be able to self-organize its systems, and adapt to both its inhabitants as well as environmental perturbations. This can be accomplished with the use of sensors and actuators in a decentralized configuration with artificial life programming. Since organisms are autonomous by definition, off-grid housing systems are infused to create a new housing model that is zero-emission, zerowaste, and can serve as a model for other forms of infrastructure at greater scales.
Daniel Marolt, Jürgen Scheible, Göran Jerke, Vinko Marolt
This paper enhances SWARM, a novel deterministic analog layout automation approach based on the idea of cellular automata. SWARM implements a decentralized interaction model in which responsive layout modules, covering basic circuit types, autonomously move, rotate and deform themselves to let constraint-compliant, compact layout solutions emerge from a synergetic flow of self-organization. With the ability to consider design constraints both implicitly and explicitly, SWARM joins the layout quality of procedural generators with the flexibility of optimization algorithms, combining these two kinds of automation into a “bottom-up meets top-down” flow. The new enhancements are demonstrated in an OTA example, depicting the power of SWARM and its enormous potential for future developments.
Kriptovalute su digitalni novac utemeljen na kriptografiji i decentraliziranom sustavu. Postoje samo u elektroničkom obliku kao jedinstveni digitalni novčići ("tokeni"). Iza njih ne stoji autoritet države niti ih je moguće svojevoljno proizvesti. Rad se fokusira na značajkama, postavkama, razvoju i svim međuodnosima važnih ekonomskih faktora koji utječu na kriptovalute. U prvom poglavlju navedena su obilježja kriptovaluta. Drugo poglavlje daje primjere i govori o primjeni kriptovaluta u svakodnevnom životu. U trećem poglavlju je raspravljano o trenutnim i budućim regulacijama najmoćnijih zemalja svijeta (G20) , kao i njihovoj zajedničkoj suradnji u želji za jedinstvenim i standardiziranim pravilima, a sve u svrhu što kvalitetnijeg nadzora nad kriptovalutama kako bi se spriječile malverzacije i zaštitili potrošači. Četvrto poglavlje govori o inicijalnoj ponudi kovanica, a peto poglavlje je namijenjeno sigurnosti kriptovaluta. Cilj istraživanja je utvrditi koliko je studentska populacija upoznata i usmjerena prema novim oblicima digitalnog novca, koje značajke kriptovaluta smatraju pozitivnima, a koje negativnima i u kojoj su mjeri investirali ili su spremni investirati dio svojih ulaganja u kriptovalute i sl. Metode istraživanja korištene u radu su kompilacija na temelju proučavanja postojeće literature o temi rada, prikupljanje i analiza podataka vezanih uz kriptovalute, ponajprije podataka vezanih uz cijene i tržišnu kapitalizaciju, anketiranje studenata Ekonomskog fakulteta u Rijeci i metoda dedukcije putem koje su pokazane sve važne karakteristike i obilježja kriptovaluta. Na temelju provedene ankete u kojoj je sudjelovalo 90 studenata Ekonomskog fakulteta u Rijeci zaključak toga dijela istraživanja je da je mlada populacija dobro upoznata s kriptovalutama i njenim glavnim značajkama, ali i određenim nedostatkom informiranosti o tehnologiji (trećina studenata nije čula za pojam "blockchain") i nedovoljnoj odlučnosti oko investiranja i trgovanja u kriptovalute. Povrh toga, dokazan je i negativan utjecaj hakerskih napada i određenih kriminalnih radnji, kao i nestabilnost tržišne cijene na povjerenje studenata, ali i ukupne populacije vezane uz globalni financijski sustav u kriptovalute. Ishod istraživanja omogućio je da zaključimo kako su kriptovalute trenutno u ranoj fazi razvoja i nisu se dovoljno implementirale za široku primjenu u trgovini roba i usluga ili općenito kao sredstvo razmjene. Faktor koji je uključen u istraživanje kako bi opisao veličinu, odnosno obujam neke kriptovalute je tržišna kapitalizacija u dolarima. Temeljna ideja ovog rada je informirati čitatelja o pozitivnim i negativnim značajkama koje se se vežu uz kriptovalute. Na taj način čitatelji će biti bolje informirani i educirani o potencijalnom riziku ulaganja u kriptovalute, kao i većoj razini zaštite prilikom posjedovanja neke digitalne valute.
We reproduce apparently complex cellular automaton behaviour with partial differential equations as developed in the author’s previous work. Our partial differential equation (PDE) model easily explains behaviour observed in selected scenarios of the cellular automaton wargame ISAAC without resorting to anthropomorphization of autonomous ‘agents’. The insinuation that agents have a reasoning and planning ability is replaced with a deterministic numerical approximation which encapsulates basic motivational factors and demonstrates a variety of spatial behaviours approximating the mean behaviour of the ISAAC scenarios. All scenarios presented here highlight the dangers associated with attributing intelligent reasoning to behaviour shown, when this can be explained quite simply through the effects of the terms in our equations. A continuum of forces is able to behave in a manner similar to a collection of individual autonomous agents, and shows decentralized self-organization and adaptation of tactics to suit a variety of combat situations.
Cellular Automata and Applications
Mathematical and Theoretical Epidemiology and Ecology Models
Francisco Bernardo, R. Agustı́, J. Pérez-Romero, O. Sallent
This paper presents a decentralized framework for dynamic spectrum assignment in multicell orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA) networks. The proposed framework allows each cell to autonomously decide the frequency resources it should use through a procedure that incorporates concepts from self-organization and machine learning in multiagent systems (MASs). Simulation results have been obtained for several scenarios, including both macrocells (MCs) and femtocells (FCs), revealing important improvements in terms of spectral efficiency and intercell interference mitigation over reference approaches, and close performance with the one obtained by a centralized strategy. Results also suggest that the framework would be practical for future FC cellular deployments where a high degree of independence of the network nodes is expected to reduce operational costs.