With the rapid rise of renewable energy sources (RES) in energy grids, the need for secure peer-to-peer (P2P) energy trading platforms are increasing. Such platforms should allow energy users to buy/sell energy, participate in bids, and negotiate prizes. The decentralized blockchain architecture makes it suitable for building an efficient energy trading platform. In this paper, we propose a private blockchain-based energy trading platform using a proof of authority (PoA) consensus algorithm for energy users within a neighbourhood or a microgrid. The private Ethereum blockchain is configured using three Raspberry Pi 4 models, which act as three nodes on the network. The trading process is implemented using a smart contract deployed on the nodes by configuring each node as a buyer and seller. The nodes can add offers, choose offers, and trade energy within the nodes in the network. All the transactions are recorded on the blockchain. For ease of demonstration, Python Flask and HTTP-based interaction environment is developed.
Modern public blockchains like Ethereum rely on p2p networks to run distributed and censorship-resistant applications. With its wide adoption, it operates as a highly critical public ledger. On its transition to become more scalable and sustainable, shifting to PoS without sacrificing the security and resilience of PoW, Ethereum offers a range of consensus clients to participate in the network. In this paper, we present a methodology to measure the performance of the consensus clients based on the latency to receive messages from the p2p network. The paper includes a study that identifies the incentives and limitations that the network experiences, presenting insights about the latency impact derived from running the software in different locations.
Consensus algorithms are the core technology of a blockchain and directly affect the implementation and application of blockchain systems. Delegated proof of stake (DPoS) significantly reduces the time required for transaction verification by selecting representative nodes to generate blocks, and it has become a mainstream consensus algorithm. However, existing DPoS algorithms have issues such as "one ballot, one vote", a low degree of decentralization, and nodes performing malicious actions. To address these problems, an improved DPoS algorithm based on community discovery is designed, called CD-DPoS. First, we introduce the PageRank algorithm to improve the voting mechanism, achieving "one ballot, multiple votes", and we obtain the reputation value of each node. Second, we propose a node voting enthusiasm measurement method based on the GN algorithm. Finally, we design a comprehensive election mechanism combining node reputation values and voting enthusiasm to select secure and reliable accounting nodes. A node credit incentive mechanism is also designed to effectively motivate normal nodes and drive out malicious nodes. The experimental simulation results show that our proposed algorithm has better decentralization, malicious node eviction capabilities and higher throughput than similar methods.
Ikram Ud Din, Kamran Ahmad Awan, Ahmad Almogren, Joel J. P. C. Rodrigues
Summary This manuscript provides an inâdepth exploration of metaverses, charting their historical development, technological foundations, and potential multifarious applications. It critically assesses the prevailing challenges and explores potential pathways for the evolution of these expansive, virtual environments. In shedding light on the wideâranging implications of metaverses, it navigates societal, cultural, regulatory, and economic landscapes. It further elucidates the symbiosis between the Internet of Things (IoT) and metaverses, presenting empirical evidence derived from purposeâbuilt IoT frameworks for metaverse applications. A series of experiments were conducted to affirm the hypothesis that the integration of IoT into metaverse utilities, including advanced concepts such as smart buildings, the intricate task of power grid management, and the precisionâcentric domain of agriculture, can drive significant progress. Quantitative findings provide compelling evidence of marked improvements in energy conservation, costâefficiency, and operational effectiveness arising from the incorporation of IoT into metaverse use cases. With observed mean improvements of 25% in energy conservation, 17% in cost reduction, and an impressive 22% increase in operational efficiency, specifically in the realms of smart building applications and power grid management, this study underscores the pressing need for sustained research and development initiatives in this emerging.
The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the network of interconnected devices that can communicate and share data over the Internet. The widespread adoption of smart devices within Internet of Things (IoT) networks poses considerable security challenges for their communication. To address these issues, blockchain technology, known for its decentralized and distributed nature, offers potential solutions within consensus-based authentication in IoT networks. This paper presents a novel approach called the local and global layer blockchain model, which aims to enhance security while simplifying implementation. The model leverages the concept of clustering to establish a local-global architecture, with cluster heads assuming responsibility for local authentication and authorization. Implementing a local private blockchain facilitates seamless communication between cluster heads and relevant base stations. This blockchain implementation enhances credibility assurance, strengthens security, and provides an effective network authentication mechanism. Simulation results indicate that the proposed algorithm outperforms previously reported methods. The proposed model achieved an average coverage per node of 0.9, which is superior to baseline models. Additionally, the lightweight blockchain model proposed in this paper demonstrates superior capabilities in achieving balanced network latency and throughput compared to traditional global blockchain approaches.
The widespread adoption of distributed energy resources (DERs) and the progress made in internet of things (IoT) and cloud computing technologies have enabled and facilitated the development of various smart grid applications and services. This study aims to develop and implement a peer-to-peer (P2P) energy trading platform that allows local energy trading between consumers and prosumers within a microgrid which combines IoT and blockchain technologies. The proposed platform comprises an IoT-cloud home energy management system (HEMS) responsible for gathering and storing energy consumption data and incorporates a blockchain framework that ensures secure and transparent energy trading. The proposed IoTâblockchain architecture utilizes a Chainlink oracle network and a private Ethereum blockchain. Through the use of smart contracts, consumers and prosumers can participate in an open auction to trade energy, while the settlement process involves acquiring external energy data from an API through the oracle network. The performance of the platform is evaluated through a testbed scenario using real-world energy data from a real house in Valparaiso, Chile, while storing those measurements in AWS cloud, validating the feasibility of the proposed architecture in enabling local energy trading. This work contributes to the development of energy management systems by providing a real-world implementation of an IoTâblockchain architecture for local energy trading. The integration of these technologies will allow for a more efficient and secure energy trading system that can benefit prosumers, consumers, and utilities.
A tracking system capable of storing high volume data, such as mobility indicators, agent and cargo statuses, is of interest to both companies and consumers. Such a system enables the checking of information, such as the locations visited in a shopping center, the duration of employees' stays in certain parts of an office building or factory, whether a bus stopped at each bus stop on a route, the route of a delivery driver, or whether a security team is performing the specified patrol in a neighborhood. This dissertation aims to investigate the efficiency of identifying the current position of a mobile entity and propose a solution for transmitting, adding, and retrieving information like this. The proposed solution is a framework called ARTIIMoR, which stores data securely, immutably, and transparently using a multilayer Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) system. Three layers of DLT are used to store location information at different levels of abstraction and aggregation. The system aims to allow companies and consumers to record position and movement information with reliability, scalability, and traceability.
A Distributed Concensus System (DCS) is a key component for a distributed system, maintaining and consenting over distributed state, as often required in distributed filesystems, cryptocurrencies and other applications. The prevalent mechanism to distribute the information needed to reach consensus in a DCS is through an iterative diffusion with the goal of distributing the (updated) information to at least the majority of DCS participants. Such diffusion is not just costly in maintaining the needed communication relations but also incurs latency in performing the diffusion itself. When looking closer at the goal of achieving the majority rule, however, one may wonder of the lack of multicast being used for achieving the same goal. This paper thus returns to the original intention of how to distribute information to a large set of users and outlines reasons for why multicast has not been widely used thus far. We evaluate the potential gain in doing so, based on an analytical model for the diffusion latency in an iterative diffusion DCS, bounded through empirical studies in an Ethereum system.
Abstract In a networked microgrid system (NMS), various heterogeneous microgrids are interconnected. A networked microgrid system facilitates a new kind of physical design that provides numerous advantages such as distributed economic optimization, reliability, resiliency, and focusing on distributed generations and customers. Designing the secure and privacyâprotected smart power contract between electricity suppliers and consumers, considered as agents, of different microgrids, is a challenging task in the networkedâ microgrid system. Each microgrid implements a heterogeneous or isomorphic blockchain based platform. The blockchain interoperability, inherently, presents in different blockchains implemented by various microgrids. This paper reviews the interoperability issues and smart contract designs in blockchainâbased systems and proposes new mechanisms to cater blockchain interoperability challenges to facilitate the design of secure and seamless smart contracts among different blockchains of microgrids. A network hub of heterogeneous blockchains of network microgrids has been proposed. A methodology has been developed to transfer tokens between interoperable blockchains. A distributed identityâbased microgrid (DIBM) scheme is incorporated to make the networked microgrid system secure and trustworthy. This paper suggests an effective consensus protocol for crossâchain architecture that improves the tokenization system and smart power contract designs. Asynchronous blockchain based federated learning for peerâtoâpeer smart power exchange has been implemented in learning process of interoperable and heterogeneous blockchain based network hub of microgrid. For simulation purposes, MATLAB and python programming have been used with realâtime data of microgrids.
A consensus protocol plays a vital role in any blockchain platform by ensuring all components agree on common data values and follow the same course of action, even in the presence of defective components. This research project has discovered a problem associated with contemporary blockchain consensus protocols, which has an impact on both users of blockchain technology and investors in cryptocurrencies. The question of whether current blockchain platforms are truly decentralized has been raised by the blockchain community over a period of time. The most popular blockchains use Proof of Work (PoW), Proof of Stake (PoS), or a combination of both, but both systems have limitations in terms of decentralization. Several alternative consensus protocols have emerged recently, but none have achieved total decentralization or welcomed any level user to be the next miner or forger. Therefore, true decentralization of a blockchain system is more challenging as most of the popular consensus protocols were invented to accommodate decentralization but eventually, driven by the centralization of power. This paper proposes a truly decentralized consensus protocol that is capable of avoiding the centralization of power even in the future regardless of the number of peers. The protocol also makes sure it avoids the use of specialized hardware resources, decreases the level of energy consumption, and encourages network activities. Additionally, the novel consensus protocol offers a more democratic and fair approach to blockchain consensus.
Engin Zeydan, Josep Mangues, Ćuayb S. Arslan, Yekta TĂŒrk
Self-sovereign identity (SSI) has emerged lately as an identity and access management framework typically implemented based on distributed ledger technology (DLT), allowing device owners to administer and control their own data. In this article, a blockchain (BCN)-based SSI system has been developed as a new identity plane to enable routing device owners in autonomous systems (ASs) to have greater control over inter-domain networks (IDNs), potentially across multiple paths that comply with routing device-defined preferences. The proposed system provides identity management, authentication, and transparent information about routers, attested by ASs, while maintaining the privacy of sensitive network details. Device-level information and preferences are protected by BCN-based SSI. We used a GNS3 network emulation test bed and Hyperledger Indy distributed identity management system to test the proposed solution's AS convergence time and credential operation time, respectively. Experiment results demonstrate that when the proposed routing system was used in combination with the BCN-based SSI credential management platform, the convergence time for the inter-AS and intra-AS systems became longer as the number of routers increased, whereas the credential operations had shorter processing times.
Web 3.0 is an emerging Internet paradigm based predominantly on the blockchain technology. Because Web 3.0 applications are designed to operate over trustless and permissionless networks, they can have significant advantages, such as decentralized control structures and transparency. Hence, existing web applications are being reproduced using Web 3.0 technologies. In contrast, real-time services are still implemented with the Web 2.0 architecture. In particular, implementing Web 3.0 media streaming requires modifications to the service architecture of existing media streaming systems because some technical difficulties exist. For example, as data moves from centralized data centers to distributed storage, the user's quality of experience may be severely degraded. In addition, the software components comprising the Web 3.0 stack, such as interplanetary file system, cryptocurrency wallets, and the Ethereum JavaScript API are not compatible with various combinations of OSs, media players, and browsers. Therefore, in this study, we propose an end-to-end system architecture designed for Web 3.0 real-time services, which prevents degradation of service quality. Further, we present a media NFT marketplace named Retriever (https://retriever.live) fully developed using Web 3.0 technologies. Retriever allows users to enjoy watching video content and further to directly trade their content without intermediaries by ensuring the privacy of the data and managing digital intellectual property. In particular, Retriever does not sacrifice the user experience and is compatible with multiple mobile devices.
Umang Rajendra Barbhaya, Lokendra Vishwakarma, Debasis Das
The smart gridâs local energy market (LEM) enables each renewable-energy-powered residential unit to profit from trading energy with others. However, energy trading in LEMs is witnessing many cybersecurity challenges, such as transaction integrity and user authentication. Among these, energy trading and price computing using auctions have generally been accepted. However, state-of-the-art auction schemes are centralized and unfair, meaning that prosumers are not equally benefited. We proposed ETradeChain, a platform for energy trading based on blockchain technology. The trading in ETradeChain happens with the help of a modified double auction scheme to make it fully decentralized and fair for all the members of LEM, along with information secrecy. We have developed a pseudo coin called Pcoins (Power Coins) based on the energy generated by the prosumer for energy trading in LEM. The ETradeChain uses a double auction process with Pcoin as a stake to reach a consensus on the energy transaction. Furthermore, ETradeChain employs blockchain technology to demonstrate the viability of real-time peer-to-peer (P2P) trading for practical purposes. We have set up a Testbed for the experiments using Raspberry Pi 4 model B IoT devices. The experiment results show that the ETradeChain minimized the consensus delay up to 90% with 60% high throughput. It also achieved 80% low computational overhead and 70-80% low storage and communication overhead.
Summary Small cell networks can fulfill the increasing demandfor the high data rate of wireless applications. Energy efficiency is an important design parameter of the ultra dense small cell network (UDSCN). The sleeping strategy of small base stations (sâBSs) is used to enhance the network's energy efficiency. An efficient sleeping strategy of sâBSs is required while preserving users' quality of service (QoS). The idle sâBSs can be switched to sleep mode. This paper proposes a blockchainâenabled solution for the sleeping strategy of sâBSs. Here, a blockchainâenabled small cell network is created between the sâBSs. The network is decentralized, which eliminates the workload of the macro base station (MBS). The proposed network architecture is enabled as a decentralized network through blockchain. The blockchain provides distributed control over the sâBS operations through a smart contract. Here, smart contracts act as distributed self organizing network features to handle selfâtransactions among small cells for switching off sâBSs in the network. All the software logic required to perform sâBS operations is written in a smart contract using Ethereum. The proposed solution improves energy efficiency and enables the ultra dense small cell network to be decentralized.
Abstract A Blockchain is one distributed ledger system, and keeps the high redundancy of ledger copies to make the assurance of network security. However, the continuously duplicated full copies also impose a tremendous amount of demand on some nodes for data storage. The development of blockchain technologies in the IoT(Internet of Things) application scenario is hampered by the restricted storage capacities of terminal devices used in the IoT edge computing scenario, which makes it difficult to load the full copy with infinite growth. Our paper suggests a collaborative ledger storing model based on Chord Ring to address the issues with lightweight blockchains in data storage. On-chain blocks are split by Chord Ring structure and stored in various node clusters in a decentralized manner, and off-chain blocks at various levels are provided with PoW(Proof of Work) consensus asynchronously and archived centrally to the cloud storage on a regular basis. The theoretical and experimental analysis indicates that this model can reduce the data storage redundancy of blockchains while ensuring the high availability of data and the high decentralization of the network.
Roman-Valentyn Tkachuk, Dragos Ilie, Remi Robert, Victor R. Kebande · 5 authors
Renewable energy sources are becoming increasingly important as a substitute for fossil energy production. However, distributed renewable energy production faces several challenges regarding trading and management, such as inflexible pricing models and inaccurate green consumption information. A decentralized peer-to-peer (P2P) electricity marketplace may address these challenges. It enables prosumers to market their self-produced electricity. However, such a marketplace needs to guarantee that the transactions follow market rules and government regulations, cannot be manipulated, and are consistent with the generated electricity. One of the ways to provide these guarantees is to leverage blockchain technology. This work describes a decentralized blockchain-based P2P energy marketplace addressing privacy, trust, and governance issues. It uses a private permissioned blockchain Hyperledger Fabric (HF) and its smart contracts to perform energy trading settlements. The suggested P2P marketplace includes a particular regulator actor acting as a governmental representative overseeing marketplace operations. In this way, the suggested P2P marketplace can address the governance issues needed in electricity marketplaces. Further, the proposed marketplace ensures actorsâ data privacy by employing HFâs private data collections while preserving the integrity and auditability of all operations. We present an in-depth performance evaluation and provide insights into the security and privacy challenges emerging from such a marketplace. The results demonstrate that partial centralization by the applied regulator does not limit the P2P energy trade settlement execution. Blockchain technology allows for automated marketplace operations enabling better incentives for prosumer electricity production. Finally, the suggested marketplace preserves the userâs privacy when P2P energy trade settlements are conducted.
In recent years, music streaming has emerged as the primary method for users to enjoy their favorite songs. Music Streaming Services (MSS) have risen to become influential entities in the music industry, exemplified by Spotifyâs impressive 406 million monthly active users by the end of 2021. However, many artists express concerns that the current MSS model fails to adequately compensate them for their music, raising questions about fairness. To tackle this issue, this paper proposes the implementation of IOTA-MSS, a Pay-per-Play Music Streaming System that leverages the secure and scalable IOTA distributed ledger technology (DLT). By harnessing the capabilities of IOTAâs DLT, IOTA-MSS offers a platform that enables seamless microtransactions. This innovative system empowers users to play and distribute music in real-time while ensuring that rights holders receive corresponding payments. Through the utilization of IOTAâs DLT, IOTA-MSS addresses the challenges faced by artists, providing a more equitable solution for music compensation. By adopting a Pay-per-Play model, this system aligns artist remuneration with the actual usage and popularity of their music. Furthermore, IOTA-MSS enhances the user experience, offering a secure and efficient platform for music enthusiasts to engage with their favorite tunes.
Open access
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques