Md. Rafid Haque, Sakibul Islam Munna, Sabbir Ahmed, Md. Tariqul Islam · 6 authors
Centralized version control systems (VCS) are vital for software development but pose risks of data loss and ownership disputes. While blockchain offers a decentralized alternative, existing solutions are often hindered by high latency, compromising the real-time collaboration essential for modern workflows. This study introduces a novel hybrid architecture combining the security of the Ethereum blockchain and the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) with two key contributions: 1) Shamir's Secret Sharing (SSS) to create a trust-minimized model for key distribution, and 2) an authoritative-first, optimistic-fallback retrieval protocol utilizing a temporary middleware to decouple the user experience from blockchain confirmation delays. We implemented a full prototype and conducted a comprehensive performance evaluation on the public Sepolia testnet. Our results demonstrate that this architecture not only provides a secure, auditable, and resilient platform for source code hosting but also achieves highly competitive user-perceived performance. Our user-perceived push time reduces submission latency by up to 49% compared to a standard git push for common repository sizes, proving that a well-designed decentralized VCS can balance the core tenets of security and decentralization with the practical need for speed and efficiency.
This research paper delves into the analysis of attack thresholds within Proof of Stake (PoS) blockchain consensus protocols. In the PoS system, validators participate by staking a certain amount of funds, granting them the ability to propose and vote on new blocks in the network. The influence of validators in the consensus process is determined by the proportion of funds they have bonded, thus wielding voting power commensurate with their stake percentage. A critical vulnerability in PoS systems lies in the possibility of a single validator reaching the attack threshold of 1/3 stake, which grants them the capability to disrupt network consensus. This study examines the potential of a validator reaching the attack threshold through two distinct methods. Firstly, I explore the Superior Returns Attack Threshold (SRAT) method, wherein a network member aims to increase their token ownership by investing in high-risk, high-return securities. The objective is to accumulate sufficient wealth to stake and attain an attack stake. Secondly, I investigate the Random Attack Threshold (RAT) method, whereby a validator inadvertently accumulates an attack stake due to stochastic randomness. My analysis reveals that intentional efforts to obtain 1/3 stake by a validator through the SRAT method yield a nonzero probability, posing potential security challenges for pure PoS systems. However, I demonstrate that the probability of a validator acquiring 1/3 stake through stochastic randomness with constant rewards, as observed in the RAT method, is nearly zero.
In the realm of cloud computing, efficient resource allocation between operators and users is a critical challenge. To address this issue, this study introduces a novel smart contract-oriented decentralized cloud platform resource dynamic allocation algorithm. By leveraging game theory principles and employing a backward induction approach, this algorithm aims to optimize the allocation of network resources in a decentralized manner. Extensive performance testing was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of the proposed algorithm. Through simulations of various network loads and resource demands, the algorithm's stability and efficiency under different scenarios were thoroughly examined. The test results demonstrated the algorithm's exceptional performance in real-world applications, showcasing its ability to efficiently optimize resource allocation, enhance network utilization, and maintain a balanced interest equilibrium between operators and users. The smart contract-driven decentralized cloud platform resource dynamic allocation algorithm presented in this study has been rigorously validated through performance testing, exhibiting robust stability and efficiency. By achieving Nash equilibrium, this algorithm prevents unilateral utility increases by any party, thereby introducing significant innovation and advancement in the field of cloud platform resource allocation.
Blockchain is increasingly offered as blockchain-as-a-service (BaaS) by cloud service providers. However, configuring BaaS appropriately for optimal performance and reliability resorts to try-and-error. A key challenge is that BaaS is often perceived as a ``black-box,'' leading to uncertainties in performance and resource provisioning. Previous studies attempted to address this challenge; however, the impacts of both vertical and horizontal scaling remain elusive. To this end, we present machine learning-based models to predict network reliability and throughput based on scaling configurations. In our evaluation, the models exhibit prediction errors of ~1.9%, which is highly accurate and can be applied in the real-world.
Sharding is a critical technology for enhancing blockchain scalability. However, existing sharding blockchain protocols suffer from a high cross-shard ratio, high transaction latency, limited throughput enhancement, and high account migration. To address these problems, this paper proposes a sharding blockchain protocol for enhanced scalability and performance optimization through account transaction reconfiguration . Firstly, we construct a blockchain transaction account graph network structure to analyze transaction account correlations. Secondly, a modularity-based account transaction reconfiguration algorithm and a detailed account reconfiguration process is designed to minimize cross-shard transactions. Finally, we introduce a transaction processing mechanism for account transaction reconfiguration in parallel with block consensus uploading, which reduces the reconfiguration time overhead and system latency. Experimental results demonstrate substantial performance improvements compared to existing shard protocols: up to a 34.7% reduction in cross-shard transaction ratio, at least an 83.2% decrease in transaction latency, at least a 52.7% increase in throughput and a 7.8% decrease in account migration number. The proposed protocol significantly enhances the overall performance and scalability of blockchain, providing robust support for blockchain applications in various fields such as financial services , supply chain management , and industrial Internet of Things . It also enables better support for high-concurrency scenarios and large-scale network environments.
Maria do Rosário de Fátima Martins Ferreira, Bernardo Ferreira de Moura Ribeiro, Alcemir Rodrigues Santos, Ricardo de Andrade Lira Rabêlo
Blockchain technology is no longer just about cryptocurrencies.Companies are increasingly exploring the use cases available to increase the added value of their products and services, as well as improving the security and strengthening the trust of their systems.However, developing and maintaining applications based on this technology is still a major challenge, especially when it comes to integrating them with various web applications, what are now known as Web3 applications.Hyperledger FireFly has emerged as a solution with the potential to ease new developers onto the path of developing such applications.Considering the scarcity of teaching material, as well as learning opportunities for beginners in this technology, this chapter proposes an introductory experience for this target audience to get started in the development of Web3 applications.
Non-fungible tokens (NFTs), attracting interest from a variety of audiences including collectors and traders, saw transactions exceeding $50 billion in 2022. The inherent features of blockchain technology–distributed, immutable, and transparent–make it an ideal platform for verifying ownership of digital assets. Despite these advantages, the high computational and transaction costs of networks, which utilizes proof of work pose significant challenges. To overcome these, alternative public blockchains have been developed, each offering unique benefits for NFT marketplaces. Choosing the right blockchain platform is crucial but complex. In our study, we introduce a prototype NFT marketplace optimized for scalability and efficiency, capable of rapidly handling a large volume of NFT transactions. We also conducted a comparative analysis of various public blockchains to identify the most cost-effective and reliable options for NFT exchanges. Further, we developed two predictive models to enhance decision-making around transaction fees and error management, thus improving cost-efficiency and reliability. We also propose a self-adaptive mechanism that allows for dynamic switching between blockchain platforms, enhancing the flexibility, and overall performance of the marketplace. Our contributions are integrated into IntelliChain, a self-adaptive framework designed to predict optimal transaction fees, reduce errors, and adapt to changing conditions like network stability and fee structures, bolstering efficiency, and reliability.
With the rapid development of Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs), particularly Succinct Non-Interactive Arguments of Knowledge (SNARKs), benchmarking various ZK tools has become a valuable task. ZK-friendly hash functions, as key algorithms in blockchain, have garnered significant attention. Therefore, comprehensive benchmarking and evaluations of these evolving algorithms in ZK circuits present both promising opportunities and challenges. Additionally, we focus on a popular ZKP application, privacy-preserving transaction protocols, aiming to leverage SNARKs' cost-efficiency through "batch processing" to address high on-chain costs and compliance issues. To this end, we benchmarked three SNARK proving systems and five ZK-friendly hash functions, including our self-developed circuit templates for Poseidon2, Neptune, and GMiMC, on the bn254 curve within the circom-snarkjs framework. We also introduced the role of "sequencer" in our SNARK-based privacy-preserving transaction scheme to enhance efficiency and enable flexible auditing. We conducted privacy and security analyses, as well as implementation and evaluation on Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM)-compatible chains. The results indicate that Poseidon and Poseidon2 demonstrate superior memory usage and runtime during proof generation under Groth16. Moreover, compared to the baseline, Poseidon2 not only generates proofs faster but also reduces on-chain costs by 73% on EVM chains and nearly 26% on Hedera. Our work provides a benchmark for ZK-friendly hash functions and ZK tools, while also exploring cost efficiency and compliance in ZKP-based privacy-preserving transaction protocols.
In the contemporary digital age, the authentication and verification of academic certificates have become increasingly vital yet challenging due to issues such as fraud, forgery, and the inefficiencies of traditional paper-based systems.This paper explored the implementation of blockchain technology as a robust solution for university certificate verification systems.Blockchain's decentralized, immutable ledger offers unparalleled security, transparency, and trust, making it an ideal framework for certifying academic credentials.By leveraging blockchain, universities can issue tamper-proof digital certificates that are easily verifiable by employers and other stakeholders, eliminating the need for intermediaries.This system enhances the reliability of academic records, reduces administrative burdens, and accelerates the verification process.Moreover, the paper discusses the technical architecture of a blockchain-based certificate system, including smart contracts, cryptographic techniques, and distributed consensus mechanisms.The paper analyze case studies of existing implementations to highlight the practical benefits and challenges encountered.The findings suggest that blockchain technology not only fortifies the integrity of academic certifications but also paves the way for a more efficient, transparent, and globally accessible verification infrastructure.This transformative approach has the potential to set new standards in academic administration and significantly curb credential fraud on a global scale.
Layer 2 solutions have emerged in recent years as a valuable alternative to increase the throughput and scalability of blockchain-based architectures. The three primary types of Layer 2 solutions are state channels, sidechains, and rollups. The rollups are particularly promising, allowing significant improvements in transaction throughput, security, and efficiency, and have been adopted by many real-world projects, such as Polygon and Optimistic. However, the adoption of Layer 2 solutions has led to other challenges, such as the data availability problem, where transaction data processed off-chain must be posted back on the main chain. This is crucial to prevent data withholding attacks and ensure all participants can independently verify the blockchain state. This paper provides a comprehensive survey of existing rollup-based Layer 2 solutions with a focus on the data availability problem and discusses the major advantages and disadvantages of them. Finally, an analysis of open challenges and future research directions is provided.
Payment card tokenization is a process that replaces sensitive card (Credit/Debit) information with a unique identifier or token. This token is used for transaction processing, reducing the risk of unauthorized access and fraud. However, the current landscape is dominated by a few centralized entities, such as Visa, Mastercard, functioning as Token Service Providers (TSP). To address this, we propose a blockchain-powered decentralized tokenization system where a smart contract generates tokens based on predefined criteria. Decentralization ensures the system’s robustness against attacks and offers transparent audit trails. Our prototype is built on the Ethereum platform, with smart contracts deployed on the Sepolia test network, allowing for performance evaluation and validation of the system’s efficacy.
While the demand for decentralized applications working across multiple blockchains has increased, Inter Blockchain Communication (IBC) is yet to see a generalized and unified protocol. This is due to the diverse types of IBC use cases and the lack of interoperability among blockchains. This paper raises two issues: 1) the necessity of sender and recipient's accounts in both source and destination blockchains, and 2) the lack of auditability of IBC transactions between the two blockchains and even more in the future. This paper introduces a novel concept, “Ownership Transfer and Execution (OTEx),” for blockchain interoperability. OTEx allows a user on the source blockchain to transfer the ownership of an asset to a recipient on the destination blockchain while the asset remains on the source blockchain. The recipient can execute this ownership to spend the asset on the source blockchain. OTEx introduces Gateway and Auxiliary Blockchain to enable the IBC protocol for OTEx transactions and ensure the auditability of transaction attempts. The proof-of-concept implementation of OTEx was developed and tested for token ownership transfer and execution between two local Ethereum blockchains. The evaluation of the proposed system shows that OTEx successfully solves the issues and acts as a viable interoperability solution using ownership of an asset.
In the Web3, the data distributed storage has become a crucial method for secure, reliable, and efficient data storage, and an efficient distributed scheduling and distribution strategy is essential for achieving rapid data response. This paper proposes a distributed data scheduling strategy that improves the firefly algorithm to achieve optimal scheduling path selection for regional data storage. By considering the storage nodes spatial status, it enables the rapid distribution and storage of data blocks. The storage path is implemented by smart contracts and stored on the blockchain with the data block identifier. Through simulation, our proposed scheduling algorithm demonstrates better performance and higher trustworthiness compared to traditional storage models.
Ethereum 2.0 (ETH2) marks a significant evolution from Ethereum 1.0 (ETHl), playing a central role in the Web3.0 infrastructure. At its core, the consensus protocol Gasper greatly affects system performance. Given that Gasper's parameters are empirically determined, there is a clear necessity for parameter tuning. This paper presents a simulation-based study that models the performance of the block proposing mechanism within Gasper. Our simulation results illustrate the impact of design parameters (e.g., block proposing interval) on throughput and non-forking probability. They may enable us to find optimal parameter configure to balance the two-performance metrics. These findings help enhance the system performance of ETH2.
With the development of artificial intelligence generated content (AIGC), the issue of interest disputes caused by data abuse has become increasingly severe. Recently, data is still dominated by the central organization instead of its producer. It is challenging to guarantee data sovereignty autonomy which helps to reasonably play the value of data and facilitate the controllable evolution of AI. The emerging “read-write-own” based Web3 is a promising pattern to break the data monopoly held by central organizations. In this paper, we propose a data interaction-oriented Web3 architecture driven by blockchain and oracle with the features of data sovereignty autonomy, zero trust, distributed security, and fair payment and incentive to guarantee data sovereignty autonomy. We finally provide a use case on life insurance to implement and evaluate our Web3 architecture in terms of performance.
Mikel Cortes-Goicoechea, Tarun Mohandas-Daryanani, José L. Muñoz, Leonardo Bautista-Gomez
Abstract Modern public blockchains like Ethereum rely on p2p networks to run distributed and censorship-resistant applications. With its wide adoption, it operates as a highly critical public ledger. On its transition to become more scalable and sustainable, shifting to PoS without sacrificing the security and resilience of PoW, Ethereum offers a range of consensus client implementations to participate in the network. In this paper, we present a methodology to measure the performance of the consensus clients based on the latency to receive messages from the p2p network. The paper includes a study that identifies the incentives and limitations that the network experiences, presenting insights about the latency impact derived from running the different consensus implementations at different locations. Our study highlights the need for a holistic approach to node deployment, where hardware, software, and geographic factors have to be carefully considered. Properly dimensioned hardware is essential to mitigate latency-related performance issues and ensure the reliable operation of beacon nodes, especially in geographically distant locations.
Internet of Things (IoT) blockchains are characterized by the difference in storage resources, computing power, and high dynamic of node topologies. In view of the demand for short-time and high-concurrency execution of events in IoT blockchain transaction scenarios, we propose a lightweight segmented storage based on parallel execution for IoT blockchains. This method breaks through the technical difficulties of 2-D ledger design for event parallelism, de-blocking lightweight synchronization of cross-domain data, and global consistency maintenance of asynchronous ledger, and achieves parallel execution of events and lightweight segmented storage of resource-constrained nodes. First, the event cumulative verification and differential generation algorithm is proposed to reduce the redundancy propagation in event distribution and voting. Second, the effective concurrent consensus confirmation mechanism of events is proposed to implement the distributed batch confirmation of valid events, which guarantees the low-latency confirmation of events. Furthermore, the data lightweight segmented storage mechanism is proposed to implement the data lightweight segmented storage of the resource-constrained nodes combined with the design of the LBPS Chain ledger structure. Simulation results show that the LBPS Chain outperforms LDV, Layerchain, and GpDB by 85%, 88%, and 52% in terms of storage cost. Compared to the Hashgraph, our method effectively increases the throughput by 89% and has scalability in reducing the storage cost and increasing throughput.
This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the historical progression, current trends, and prospects of Big Data. It explores the technological advancements that have established Big Data as a critical element of contemporary analytics, its extensive impact across various sectors, and the ethical challenges it poses. Beginning with the early recognition of Big Data's potential in the 2000s, the paper traces the development of foundational technologies such as Hadoop and the subsequent diversification of tools and methods. It delves into the integration of advanced analytics and machine learning, the rise of cloud-based Big Data services, and the transformative effects on sectors including healthcare, finance, agriculture, and education. The study also examines ethical considerations such as privacy, bias, transparency, and regulatory compliance, emphasizing the need for robust governance frameworks. It investigates the potential of emerging technologies like AI, IoT, and quantum computing to enhance Big Data capabilities further. It highlights future directions, including decentralized data ecosystems, advanced analytical techniques, and enhanced data privacy measures. By providing a panoramic view of Big Data's development, this paper aims to showcase its potential to revolutionize decision-making processes, improve operational efficiency, and drive innovation across industries; it underscores the importance of balancing technological innovation with ethical responsibility to ensure positive societal advancement and global progress. To add a novelty to the discussion, an AI agent Big D was created to provide a relevant analysis of trends in Big Data. The agent uses a multimodal ChatGPT-4o Large Language Model (LLM) from OpenAI and provides its review based on uploaded files and LLM knowledge.
P. Rajasekar, K. Kalaiselvi, Raju Shanmugam, S. Tamilselvan · 5 authors
Cloud computing caused the paradigm shift in business performance, from scalability to flexibility as well as affordability in the management of computing resources. Nevertheless, ensuring security of the data remains a key issue in the cloud due to the centralized interactions between service provider and a single vulnerability in the network can put rest of the data at risk. Consequently, the application of DLT, in addition to other solutions such as DLT, demonstrates a big step towards the improvement of cloud security frameworks. This article focuses on the implementation of DLT for data protection applications that are based on a solid dataset and decentralized security procedures in cloud environments. DLT utilization, like blockchain, provides an organization with integrity data, transparency, and fitness to counter cyber threats. Architecture stacks up sponsors such as cloud providers, users, and applications and DLT is responsible for the security of the transaction and the security policy enforcement. Customers use those services via desktop based application with transparent security policy arisen from DLT. Moreover, DLT also does identity management in the way that is decentralized, data sharing in the manner that it is secure, and the compliance to regulatory frameworks, which in addition reduces the trust and privacy risks in the cloud ecosystems. The proposed architecture is genuinely a big jump toward protecting cloud security from centralized control interruptions and thus, enhancing resilience and stability in cloud computing.
The days of long lines at banks and piles of paperwork are long gone. The lending landscape has been completely transformed by digital loans, which provide a quick, easy, and frequently paperless transactions. A payee can apply for a digital loan anytime, anywhere. The entire lending procedure is accessible and efficient, but the availability of data on the Internet provides many risks and threats, where there are certain difficulties in the world of digital lending and data security, and privacy are major concerns. It is important to address the possibility of predatory lending practices that target weaker payees, especially with flash loans, which are considered a critical type of digital loan, as they add additional pressure to banks in terms of security because they return to the same block of the blockchain, and the possibility of tampering with them is considered great. Therefore, we have developed a security protocol based on the principle of digital cryptocurrency wallets: these digital wallets are protected by our use of the Xsalsa20 algorithm. It has high specifications and is enhanced with the usage of the Crow search algorithm, which guarantees fast and efficient search results. After the analysis of the proposed system in the Tamarin Prover tool, we obtained proof of a lot of security properties like data authenticity, perfect forward secrecy, and many others, which constitute the matter that gives our system the power of security. Also, we obtained 0.6667 ms. as the rate of processing speed, 2990 ms. as the time required by the proposed system to repay loans after the conditions are met, and, finally, our proposed system has the power to present a flexible property by creating 29,700 loans every 3 s; by this, we obtained a system that is secure, authentic, fast, and flexible.
Josué N. Campos, Ronan D. Mendonça, Alexandre Fontinele, Luís H. S. de Carvalho · 11 authors
The support for smart contracts in blockchain networks has led to the emergence of a decentralized and automated finance ecosystem, DeFi (Decentralized Finance).The DeFi ecosystem aims to enhance traditional financial services through token trading, to reduce intermediaries and barriers to credit, and to broaden access to financial services in the context of the decentralized web.In this chapter, we provide an in-depth discussion of three essential and driving aspects of the DeFi ecosystem: (1) innovative applications, (2) interoperability between blockchain networks, and (3) security of the decentralized protocols that rule blockchain.In this sense, we currently present the fundamentals and practical examples of the most popular DeFi applications.We also discuss state-of-the-art research focusing on the three aspects above that will support the growth of DeFi in the coming years.
With the increasing research on blockchain, the study of consensus algorithms is also deepening. The blockchain trilemma, which includes decentralization, scalability, and security, is difficult to satisfy simultaneously. Fortunately, distributed ledgers based on directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) have the potential to solve these problems. DAG-based ledgers have no limits on the out-degree and in-degree of each node, allowing a node to be referenced by multiple nodes simultaneously, which greatly increases the transaction concurrency of the ledger. Due to its structural characteristics, the scalability of a DAG-based ledger can be greatly improved, making it a promising solution for the trilemma. This paper systematically categorizes classical and newer distributed ledgers based on DAGs into four categories based on the consensus process: DAG ledgers based on the main chain, DAG ledgers based on parallel chains, DAG ledgers based on the natural topology, and DAG ledgers based on layers. The paper provides a detailed description and analysis of the consensus process of these DAG ledgers and discusses their applications. Finally, the paper identifies some challenges that must be addressed by analyzing the existing problems of DAG ledgers, which is also an important direction for future research.