The rapid adoption of cloud computing has transformed how organizations store, process, and manage data, shifting from centralized infrastructures to highly distributed environments. This evolution has necessitated a parallel advancement in cloud security strategies to address emerging threats, regulatory demands, and architectural complexities. Initially, cloud security relied on perimeter-based defenses, such as firewalls and VPNs, which proved insufficient as architectures evolved toward hybrid, multi-cloud, and edge computing models. Modern security paradigms now emphasize Zero Trust principles, data-centric protection, and DevSecOps integration, ensuring security is embedded throughout the development lifecycle. Additionally, advancements in AI-driven threat detection, encryption technologies, and identity management have become critical in safeguarding distributed workloads. However, challenges persist, including securing serverless and containerized environments, mitigating supply chain risks, and preparing for post-quantum cryptography. Future trends point toward autonomous security systems, confidential computing, and decentralized identity solutions, reinforcing the need for adaptive, intelligent security frameworks. This paper explores the evolution of cloud security, analyzing past approaches, current best practices, and future directions to ensure robust data protection in an increasingly decentralized digital landscape. Keywords: Cloud Security, Zero Trust, Data-Centric Security, DevSecOps, AI in Cybersecurity, Distributed Environments
Xiaolong Xu, Ke Meng, Haolong Xiang, Guangming Cui · 6 authors
In edge computing, the Zero-Trust Security Model (ZTSM), as a key enabling technology for next-generation networks, plays a crucial role in providing authentication for addressing data sharing concerns, such as frequent data breaches, data misuse, and cyberattacks. However, due to the complexity and diversity of edge environments, ZTSM struggles to meet the security requirements of data sharing frameworks solely through enhanced authentication. Consequently, such frameworks with ZTSM still face challenges in ensuring data integrity, evaluating various node behaviors, and coping with the increasing complexity of node attributes. To address these issues, we propose a blockchain-enabled secure, fair and scalable data sharing framework in a zero-trust edge-end environment in this paper. Specifically, we first propose a Merkle forest-based data storage model for the classified storage of loosely coupled data, consequently enhancing the scalability of the model. Then, we design a node behavior-based reputation assessment mechanism to ensure fairness during data sharing. Moreover, a data sharing protocol supervised by smart contract is proposed, working with the aforementioned storage and assessment schemes, to ensure the security of data sharing. Finally, comprehensive security analysis validates the security, fairness and scalability of the proposed framework. Extensive experimental results show that, as transaction volume grows, the time cost of data traversal in the storage model becomes progressively more efficient. Additionally, when the size of the smart contract is increased tenfold, the maximum time cost of the data sharing protocol rises by only 4.98 times.
The rapid growth of digital systems has revolutionized modern life but also introduced critical vulnerabilities in data integrity and security. Blockchain technology, as a distributed ledger system, offers transformative solutions by ensuring trust, transparency, and tamper-resistance in data management. This chapter explores blockchain's theoretical foundations, practical applications, and associated challenges. Key attributes such as decentralization, immutability, and cryptographic security are examined, alongside real-world applications in sectors like healthcare, finance, and cybersecurity. The discussion addresses scalability, energy consumption, and regulatory hurdles, while highlighting innovations like quantum-resistant cryptography and blockchain-AI convergence. Through theoretical insights, case studies, and actionable recommendations, this chapter underscores blockchain's potential to fortify data systems, paving the way for a secure digital future.
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
B. Vaidianathan, G. Regina Manicka Rajam, R.L. Shyja, M. Anitha
Know your customer (KYC) is the process of confirming user identities and assessing business risks from illicit activity. The manual KYC procedure is insecure, time-consuming, and expensive. With Blockchain technology's immutability, security, and decentralisation, such difficulties can be solved. KYC legal provide blockchain-based KYC verification by validating papers by a trustworthy network participant. This paper proposes an Ethereum-based Optimised KYC Blockchain system with symmetric AES encryption and LZ compression. The distributed ledger, cryptography, compression algorithm, and blockchain technologies make this system transparent, secure, efficient, and optimised. The suggested method uses Distributed Ledger Technology (Blockchain technology) to reduce KYC verification costs for institutions and speed up the process for clients. Our system is superior to conventional techniques since each customer only needs to be verified once, regardless of the number of institutions they want to link to. Since we use the DLT, we can securely communicate verification results with customers, boosting transparency. We created a Proof of Concept (POC) using the Ethereum API, websites as endpoints, and an android app as front office to prove its viability and efficacy. Overall, this strategy enhances customer experience, decreases costs, and boosts customer on boarding transparency.
This paper introduces a certificate verification system powered by blockchain technology to prevent document forgery and ensure authenticity. By using a distributed ledger, the system creates a permanent and transparent record for issuing and verifying certificates. In this Block chain technology, block chain performs Secure Certificate Storage with hash encryption, real time data verification & decentralized network of nodes validation. By using block chain technology, we can prevents Forgery from tampering and ensure authenticity. It ensures the data integrity while doing real time verification and it is more efficient than other technology. It minimizes the verification cost. This application is more scalable and used in multiple areas like the educational sector for document verification and health industry to validate the medical records and Supply chain management. This project demonstrates the potential of blockchain technology in securing certificate verification, preventing forgery, and enhancing trust in document authenticity.
This work proposes the Trust Based Proof of Authority as a potential solution for achieving security, scalability, and efficiency in blockchain enabled Industry 5.0 IoT networks. Trust levels are assigned to validators in accordance to their trust, their contribution in the past, and their system reliability metrics. Only nodes with high trust level perform block validation which greatly enhances security. In addition, this approach is more efficient and energy conserving than existing consensus mechanisms such as Proof of Stake or standard PoA. The proposed method is implemented using IoT integrated healthcare system and tested using iFogSim simulator and the Ethereum blockchain environment. Several key performance metrics such as block validation time, accuracy of validation, throughput of the system, processing time, and scalability have been used to evaluate the performance of the proposed system. Experimental results proved that the validation of block due to the Trust-Based PoA mechanism, leading to reduced computational overhead and improving reliability of the system. The proposed TB-PoA is appropriate for secure and scalable IoT applications within the Industry 5.0.
Blockchain technology, originally introduced through Bitcoin cryptocurrency in 2008, has rapidly expanded beyond its financial roots, offering innovative solutions for secure data management across various sectors, including education. Higher education institutions, faced with challenges in managing academic records, verifying degrees, assessing skills, and safeguarding personal data, have increasingly looked to blockchain for answers. Blockchain’s transparent, immutable, and decentralized nature provides potential solutions to these longstanding problems. This systematic review assesses blockchain-based proposals for academic certificates management, aiming to highlight globally recognized best practices, explore the latest applications, and identify key challenges hindering the widespread adoption of blockchain technology in education. A thorough discussion based on the findings introduces potential solutions to mitigate these challenges and provides insights into possible future research directions that could help overcome these obstacles.
Henrique Lin, João Santos, Tiago Dias, Miguel Correia
The real estate sector plays a vital role in today's economy and society. However, the current system for managing real estate transactions remains heavily reliant on manual document handling and verification processes, which are often inefficient and vulnerable to fraud, underscoring the need for innovative solutions. This position paper proposes a system that integrates Optical Character Recognition (OCR), Natural Language Processing (NLP), and Verifiable Credentials (VCs) to automate document extraction, verification, and management within real estate transactions. Key goals include (1) a comprehensive workflow to transform diverse document formats into standardized VCs and (2) an automated data matching mechanism to identify inconsistencies and potential fraud indicators. The approach involves using the potential of blockchain and Web3 technologies as a decentralized trust layer to improve data integrity and transparency. This solution holds significant promise for streamlining real estate processes, fostering trust among stakeholders, and establishing a scalable framework for secure and efficient digital transactions.
B. Anandapadmanaban, Athira V Umesh, A Anilkumar, Arun K. Das · 5 authors
The rapid development of blockchain technology opens up trends and new directions in securing, authenticating and decentralizing data. EduChain allows for two demonstration areas, namely, use of blockchain and NFTs in certification solutions for more reliable certificate checking and certificate storage. Built on Ethereum blockchain and utilizing IPFS, from the perspective of universities, colleges, and other institutions, EduChain facilitates issuance of secure and tamper-proof NFT certificates for sensitive information. It has MetaMask-Like login and easy integration with the Ethereum platform and has several other advanced characteristics. EduChain responds to relevant issues with conventional certification solutions, which include fake certifications and certifications based on fake documents, time-consuming examinations of documents, and insufficient control of one’s own data. Turing tests conducted on Sepolia testnet established that the system provides for immutable, verifiable and decentralized certification. Further improvements could be real-time notifications or other applications that would work in conjunction with Revizto; analysis tools that would produce even more meaningful information. EduChain can be considered as the good example of how using NFTs can improve the processes of documents verification in various sectors.
Traditional Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) are prone to cyber attacks which makes it difficult in keeping data secure. As the traditional architecture relies on centralized storage, which makes them vulnerable to unauthorized access and manipulation. To tackle these security concerns, the study demostrates the integration of blockchain technology and Bulletproof, a zero-knowledge range proof technique into SCADA systems to securely store aggregated sensor value proof in the ledger. The study uses Hyperledger fabric, creating a transparent and tamper-proof record for audits and providing a more secure and trustworthy system. This approach reduces storage and computational overhead while ensuring that data remains private and within valid ranges without exposing sensitive details. By combining blockchain with zero-knowledge range proofs, the proposed solution enhances both security and efficiency in SCADA systems. It ensures that sensor data remains protected from tampering while keeping blockchain resources optimized. This makes industrial systems more secure, reliable, and ready for the future of automation.
The nature of virtual assets and their legal regulation is a challenge for policymakers, because virtual assets themselves are a new phenomenon in the field of social and economic relations, which is significantly different from established types of property. The market of virtual assets, which has achieved significant development over the past 10 years, is of interest for research and from a fiscal point of view, because despite its significant volume, agreed approaches to the taxation of operations carried out in such a market are absent or are at the stage of development. A significant number of new challenges facing the legislator when determining the tax regime of operations with virtual assets arise from their qualities, which are categorically different from other types of assets. Virtual assets have a significant number of subspecies, which on the one hand are significantly different from each other, and on the other hand share common features. In particular, the most famous virtual assets - Bitcoin, Ethereum are completely decentralized, do not have a specific issuer, do not certify any civil rights of the owner, and do not have security. On the other hand, such types of virtual assets as electronic money tokens («stablecoins») or tokens related to assets are a form of expression of civil rights, namely the rights of claim against the issuer. Thus, it is problematic to determine which set of characteristics to use to distinguish virtual assets from other types of property while taking into account the full range of diversity of virtual assets themselves. In addition, transactions with virtual assets take place in forms different from transactions with cash, securities, etc. The ability of subjects to store, exchange, acquire and alienate virtual assets without the participation of any financial institutions or other intermediaries is another challenge in rulemaking, because it complicates the application of existing control methods in the field of taxation. A separate category of problems is also the phenomenon of decentralized finance («DeFi»), which eliminates intermediaries not only from the basic operations of moving virtual assets, but also from more complex economic operations, such as credit activities, loans, collateral, derivative contracts, etc. Considering the above, the relevance of the research lies in the emergence of qualitatively new categories of social relations, which, like any other social and economic relations, require legal regulation. Currently available regulatory instruments are not able to fully cover all the variety of operations with virtual assets, and to provide appropriate, special regulation of them.
• Agent-based modeling can be used to study the sociotechnical dynamics associated with technology implementation. • Ethereum’s ERC-721protocol can be leveraged to facilitate reducing the prevalence of counterfeit electronic parts. • Widespread adoption of blockchain is required to reduce the flow of counterfeit electronic parts. • Adoption is sensitive to the direct and indirect cost associated with blockchain implementation. • Integerating blockchain with business practice verification can reduces its cost, leading to an increase in adoption. Safety-critical, mission-critical, and infrastructure-critical systems (e.g., aerospace, transportation, defense, and power generation) are forced to source parts over exceptionally long periods of time from a supply chain that they do not control. Such systems are exposed to the dual risks of the impacts of system failure and the exposure to an unauthorized electronics marketplace over decades. Therefore, critical systems operators, manufacturers, and sustainers, must implement policies and technologies to reduce the risk of obtaining counterfeit parts. Blockchain technology, as a distributed ledger platform, has shown promise for resolving the issues associated with a lack of trust, transparency in peer-to-peer transactional networks, and compromised supply chains. There are opportunities to apply blockchain for supply chain concepts to mitigate the risks associated with part authenticity in the electronic part supply chain. This paper introduces a supply-chain blockchain framework resilient to aging (e.g., the loss of involvement of the original component manufacture and its authorized distributors, and loss of part transaction history). An agent-based model is introduced as a novel platform to test the impact of the proposed blockchain framework on supply-chain parties as well as the prevalence of counterfeits in the electronics supply chain. The model can validate the proposed protocol over the entire life cycle of a part (i.e., from active production to discontinuance and beyond) and predict the parties’ adoption rates, and changes in the prevalence of counterfeit parts. Application of the model to a public participation blockchain based on Ethereum ERC- 721 protocols indicates that the participation level of independent distributors directly affects the efficacy of blockchain in the prevention of transactions containing counterfeit parts. A proposed certification-based blockchain participation approach can be effective if certifications require large enough test accuracy limits and high previous owner certification thresholds.
Yuri Bespalov, Lyudmila Kovalchuk, Hanna Nelasa, Roman Oliynykov
Abstract Decentralized consensus protocols have a variety of parameters to be set during their deployment for practical applications in blockchains. The analysis given in most research papers proves the security state of the blockchain, at the same time usually providing a range of acceptable values, thus allowing further tuning of the protocol parameters. In this paper, we investigate Ouroboros Praos, the proof-of-stake consensus protocol deployed in Cardano and other blockchains. In contrast to its predecessor, Praos allows multiple honest slot leaders that lead to fork creation and resolution, consequently decreasing the block rate per time unit. In our analysis of dependence on protocol parameters such as active slot coefficient and p2p network block propagation time, we obtain new theoretical results and explicit formulas for the expectation of the length of the longest chain created during the Praos epoch, the length of the longest unintentional fork created by honest slot leaders, the efficiency of block generation procedure (the ratio of blocks included in the final longest chain vs the total number of created blocks), and other characteristics of the blockchain throughput. We study these parameters as stochastic characteristics of the block generation process. The model is described in terms of the two-parametric family ξ ij of independent Bernoulli random variables which generate deformation of the binomial distribution by a positive integer parameter—the delay (deterministic or random). An essential part of our paper is a study of this deformation in terms of denumerable Markov chains and generating functions.
Blockchain technology has transformed information management through decentralization, security and immutability. However, a gap persists in its application for the issuance and verification of professional qualifications in education. This study presents a prototype developed in Python and Docker, designed to guarantee the authenticity and traceability of academic credentials through a hybrid blockchain network with six Docker nodes. The prototype includes processes such as initial data registration, node configuration, credential generation with QR codes and associative signature based on Byzantine consensus. During the signing stage, previously stored records are validated and authenticated, ensuring integrity before final credentials are generated. The peer-to-peer network ensures synchronization, decentralized storage and immutability of records. On average, initial title registration on the blockchain took 2.97 s, with block replication taking 0.02 s. Record signing had a latency of 0.96 s, with replication in 0.79 s, and Byzantine consensus took 0.12 s, all with moderate resource consumption. The generated titles, verifiable via QR codes, reinforce trust and reduce academic fraud. This model stands out for its practical and scalable approach, with potential for adaptation to other sectors. Future work should address the scalability and robustness of the system for more complex applications.
Basem Mohamed Elomda, Taher Abouzaid Abdelaty Abdelbary, Hesham Hassan, Kamal S. Hamza · 5 authors
The Multi-Layer Blockchain Security Model (MLBSM) proposed in 2024 was designed to safeguard Internet of Things (IoT) networks, as well as similar network architectures, against transaction privacy leakage in public blockchain systems. MLBSM also addresses critical issues like latency, ensuring faster transaction speeds through clustering and parallel processing. This paper presents a new extension to the Multi-Layer Blockchain Security Model (MLBSM). The proposed model is called the Enhanced Multi-Layer Blockchain Security Model (EMLBSM). The proposed EMLBSM will solve latency issues by compressing and reducing the layers of the MLBSM through merging layer2 and layer3 in the MLBSM. This paper describes the required enhanced solution for latency and scalability problems that were found in the MLBSM.
Federated learning (FL) is an emerging paradigm that enables multiple clients to collaboratively train a machine learning (ML) model without the need to exchange their raw data. However, it relies on a centralized authority to coordinate participants’ activities. This not only interrupts the entire training task in case of a single point of failure, but also lacks an effective regulatory mechanism to prevent malicious behavior. Although blockchain, with its decentralized architecture and data immutability, has significantly advanced the development of FL, it still struggles to withstand poisoning attacks and faces limitations in computational scalability. We propose Zkfhed, a verifiable and scalable FL system that overcomes the limitations of blockchain-based FL in poison attacks and computational scalability. First, we propose a two-stage audit scheme based on zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs), which verifies that the training data are extracted from trusted organizations and that computations on the data exactly follow the specified training protocols. Second, we propose a homomorphic encryption delegation learning (HEDL), based on fully homomorphic encryption (FHE). It is capable of outsourcing complex computing to external computing resources without sacrificing the client's data privacy. Final, extensive experiments on real-world datasets demonstrate that Zkfhed can effectively identify malicious clients and is highly efficient and scalable in terms of online time and communication efficiency.
With the development of communication infrastructure and the popularity of smart devices, e-commerce is presenting in more diverse forms and attracting the attention of more and more users. Since e-commerce transactions usually involve sensitive information of a large number of users, privacy and security have become increasingly important issues. Despite certain advantages (e.g., trading security), the privacy protection capability and efficiency of blockchain is still limited by some key factors, especially of its architecture. In this paper, we propose a blockchain-based privacy protection system named PBTMS that integrates zero-knowledge proofs, hybrid encryption, and Pedersen commitments as foundational mechanisms to ensure robust privacy protection for transaction data and user information. To achieve secure, reliable, and efficient e-commerce transactions, the PBTMS employs blockchain technology and consensus mechanisms to enable distributed storage, thereby mitigating single points of failure and addressing the risks posed by malicious nodes. Moreover, by integrating on-chain storage with off-chain computation, the system substantially reduces blockchain-related overheads, including processing time, gas consumption, and storage costs. This design establishes the PBTMS as a highly adaptable and efficient system for the evolving requirements of secure and privacy-preserving e-commerce platforms. Theoretical analysis and experimental validation demonstrate that PBTMS reduces decryption and authentication times by 79.2% and 52.6%, respectively, while cutting encrypted data size by 52.5% and overall gas consumption by 55.4%, outperforming state-of-the-art solutions. These results indicate that PBTMS is a reliable and efficient system for secure e-commerce transaction platforms and provides a novel approach to enhancing privacy protection in e-commerce.
This article presents a comprehensive framework for implementing blockchain-based data integrity validation in autonomous vehicles. The proposed system addresses critical challenges in securing real-time sensor data through a hybrid architecture combining Hyperledger Fabric with Apache Kafka. By integrating distributed ledger technology with optimized data processing mechanisms, the system achieves both security and performance requirements essential for autonomous vehicle operations. The architecture incorporates smart contracts for data validation, multi-layered security protocols, and efficient data streaming capabilities. Results demonstrate that the proposed solution successfully balances the competing demands of data security and real-time processing, making it suitable for deployment in production autonomous vehicle environments.
Verifying certificates is essential for ensuring the authenticity and integrity of academic credentials. Traditional systems are prone to vulnerabilities, including data misuse and forgery, necessitating the adoption of more secure digital solutions. This project leverages blockchain technology on the Ethereum platform, chosen for its secure smart contracts and widespread adoption, and the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) to provide a decentralized and tamper-proof framework for certificate validation. Blockchain-based hashing techniques are employed to confirm the legitimacy of certificates, while IPFS enables secure off-chain storage of large certificate files. This hybrid approach reduces storage requirements by storing only certificate hashes on-chain while using IPFS for storing large files, ensuring efficiency. The system stores certificate data on IPFS, generating a unique hash recorded on the Ethereum blockchain. By combining Ethereum’s decentralized ledger with IPFS’s distributed file storage, the proposed solution enhances transparency, reduces the risk of forgery, and offers a scalable and efficient method for verifying academic certificates.
Nothile C. Masango, Jeffrey O. Agushaka, Mercy C. Amaefule, Olutosin Taiwo · 9 authors
Abstract Data security in mobile environments has become a critical concern, driven by the growing demand for mobile services and the proliferation of data-intensive applications such as online gaming, virtual reality, and augmented reality. These applications generate massive amounts of data, challenging the storage, computational capacity, and battery life of mobile devices. Cloud environments offer a solution through task offloading, but centralized architectures introduce latency and potential vulnerabilities. Edge computing-based cloudlet networks have emerged as a promising alternative, providing localized resources to enhance service quality. However, their proximity to users increases susceptibility to security threats, posing barriers to widespread adoption. This paper presents a novel approach to addressing these challenges by integrating blockchain technology with cloudlet networks, bolstered by an agent-layer concept. The proposed architecture features an agent between mobile devices and cloudlets, utilizing a unique "proof of trust" consensus mechanism. This mechanism evaluates trust and experience based on the number of coins held by nodes, selecting miners for message verification using an elliptic curve cryptography scheme. In cases of dispute, a third miner resolves conflicts, with incorrect verifications resulting in penalties that deter malicious behavior. Experimental results demonstrate that this solution significantly enhances security, mitigates latency, and improves network performance compared to existing methods. These findings highlight the potential of blockchain-integrated cloudlet networks to revolutionize mobile data processing, offering robust security and reliable interactions between mobile devices and cloudlets.
K. Praveen Kumar, B. Pruthviraj, K. S. Reddy, S Sushruth · 6 authors
Fake certificates have always been a menace in sectors such as education, professional affiliations, and in legal documents. However, there are so many drive-in graduation certificates because the anti-forging measures are not sound. Universities provide educational certificates, which are essential documents. A blockchain based digital certificate system is presented to eradicating counterfeit certificates. Blockchain is a distributed ledger technology that revolutionized certificate verification, authentication, and fraud prevention with the advent of blockchain-based digital certificates. The innate features of blockchain technology such as immutability, transparency and decentralization enable storing of the digital certificate data on a ledger of blockchain. Each certificate is represented as a separate token on the blockchain, making sure that it is real. The design takes care of both the issues: the decentralized nature helps reduce breaches and unauthorized access to data, while the cryptographic nature ensures that data is encrypted. In this paper, we define the implementation of validations for a blockchain based digital certificates. The methodology provides hash value using SHA-256 and then it compares hash value with blockchain hash. Our approach is leans on smart contracts and our own encryption method to construct a blockchain based scoped credit validation system.
S. Sharmila Sathyanathan, Samanvitha. Sree, F. Sophiya Theresa, S Vaishali · 5 authors
Client safety and privacy will be maintained through secure security access systems, which are necessary in light of the great dependence on digital benefits. During the age of digital help, secure and confidential access control is most important for customers as well as providers. Through guaranteeing that only clients possessing specific resources are certified, access control ensures secret data and discourages unlawful actions. Widespread centralized authorization systems usually expose users' sensitive data, enabling data breaches, abuse, and espionage. To solve all of the above problems and establish a trust less system in which clients can provide access to their data or services without revealing sensitive information, we propose a decentralized code that is used to establish an authorized, secure, private, and scalable service access. Decentralized technologies such as blockchain and distributed ledgers are employed within this system. By decoupling authorization from centralized organizations, the Inter-Planetary File System (IPFS) enhances user control over personal information, diminishes the attack surface for service providers, and enhances client privacy. The protocol is secure and accommodates a broad set of service providers, ranging from digital platforms to decentralized apps, and utilizes cryptographic methods such as symmetric encryption and proxy re-encryption to see that only approved recipients have access to specific resources. This provides perfect access control while maintaining client data security. The decentralized access control and zero knowledge proof architecture is explained here along with its primary security and privacy features and uses to file storage and service scenarios.