Blockchain Papers

G. Indirapriyadarsini, Sireesha Guttapalam, Ramyasri Mogarala, Kalpeshkumar L. Guptha

Background Maintaining optimal youth nutritional health is an urgent socio-economic imperative that underpins long-term human productivity and rights-based development. However, modern youth cohorts face unique dietary threats caused by the widespread availability of ultra-processed foods, targeted digital marketing, and complex food labeling protocols. Although Artificial Intelligence (AI) presents innovative avenues for personalized dietary profiling, existing systems remain largely technocentric and detached from statutory frameworks or behavioral realities. Objective This study bridges this interdisciplinary divide by evaluating a rights-based, technology-driven framework to improve youth nutritional health. It aims to: (1) empirically evaluate the “Knowledge-Attitude-Practice” (KAP) gap linking statutory consumer rights to real-world eating habits; (2) present the engineering design of a non-commercial Progressive Web Application (PWA) built to translate legal safeguards into daily behavioral changes; and (3) triangulate these findings using data from youth surveys and expert legal and nutritional panels. Methods Using a cross-sectional approach based on non-parametric power constraints, a validated survey instrument was completed by a target sample of Indian youth ( n = 354, aged 15–25 years). Concurrently, data matrices were compiled from regional legal experts ( n = 12) and public nutrition professionals ( n = 12) to cross-verify structural bottlenecks. Group variances, demographic dependencies, and rank associations were analyzed using robust non-parametric tests, including One-Way ANOVA, Kruskal-Wallis (H), Welch’s t-test, and Kendall’s Tau ( τ ) correlation coefficients. Results Inferential analysis revealed unexpected demographic trends: undergraduate status predicted significantly higher FSSAI safety awareness than post-graduate status ( p = 0.0037), while subjective health ratings exhibited a non-linear relationship with household income ( p = 0.0004), peaking in the lower-middle financial tier. Crucially, rank correlation testing revealed that the relationship between statutory knowledge and actual dietary actions is functionally non-existent ( τ = −0.001). This near-zero correlation provides clear empirical proof of a pronounced Knowledge-Action Gap, confirming that passive legal literacy fails to influence food selection in modern environments. Conclusion By framing automated behavioral interventions within the constitutional protections of Article 21 of the Constitution of India and the Consumer Protection Act, 2019, this study shows how the open-access PWA (nutrition-zb.pages.dev) can bridge this behavioral gap. This shifts the focus of consumer health informatics from basic self-tracking to a rights-based, systemic public health intervention.

Timothy Caulfield, Pascal Borry, Maeghan Toews, Bernice S. Elger · 6 authors

‘Genetic testing can reveal crucial information to guide your training and nutrition strategies based on predispositions built into your DNA. Genetic testing identifies the ideal nutrition, training and recovery strategies for you and helps explain why athletes given the same training and nutrition plans respond differently. In short gene testing provides the ultimate in personalized nutrition and training guidance…’1 Direct-to-consumer (DTC) genetic testing has been in the news in recent years, especially since November 2013, when the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) shut down 23andMe, one of several firms that offered people general health information based on their genetic test results.2 Much attention has been paid to the accuracy of these tests in predicting future risk of disease. This is understandable as the first wave of DTC companies, including 23andMe, eventually focused on providing genetic information of this nature. And much of the existing literature on the possible harms and benefits of DTC testing is largely an analysis of disease-oriented testing.3 But it should not be forgotten that many other DTC genetic testing products are being marketed throughout the world that are not focused on disease risk but instead offer information—of varying degrees of scientific legitimacy—relevant to things like fitness, diet, and athletic ability. In addition, non-traditional providers, such as homeopaths,4 naturopaths,5 and chiropractors,6 increasingly are offering genetic tests for the purpose of providing health and lifestyle advice. It seems inevitable that, unless the regulatory environment changes, this trend will continue, with genetic testing being offered to the public for an ever-increasing range of reasons not directly related to disease. In this paper, we map the policy issues associated with the marketing and use of genetic testing products outside of the context of disease risk. We focus on companies and providers that offer testing for a wide range of genetic traits, and consider the potential implications of offering these products for use in children and adolescents. While the size of the market for these services remains unknown, it is probably still relatively small.7 Nonetheless, an analysis of genetic testing in this broader context provides an opportunity to consider issues that are likely to increase in significance as genetic testing technologies become more affordable and as the idea of genetic testing becomes more socially acceptable.8 For example, the present analysis affords an opportunity to consider the possible harms, if any, and available policy options for regulating genetic testing services not focused on disease risk and that reside on the margins of credibility. As we will see, some tests are being marketed for purposes that are clearly scientifically absurd (eg for targeting homeopathic therapies and naturopathic detoxification regimens)9 while others have more scientific plausibility, at least theoretically (eg testing for genes related to obesity and athletic characteristics like sprinting ability). Obviously, not all of these services will raise the same issues. But what they do have in common is the provision of genetic information. Are most of these companies and providers simply leveraging the excitement surrounding genetics to market services with unproven utility that are largely harmless? Is there something about genetic testing, as opposed to other forms of equally predictive information, which justifies heightened regulatory oversight? Looking at these, and other,10 issues through the lens of children and adolescents highlight potential policy challenges that may be especially problematic.11 While one could argue that legally competent adults should have the right to choose whatever service they have an interest in (however useless), this may not be the case in the context of children and adolescents who lack legal capacity and may be particularly vulnerable to DTC industry marketing strategies. We will examine whether, in the context of genetic testing services that have little scientific data to support their purported uses, any regulatory or policy response is appropriate and the potential forms such a response could take. Numerous policy guidelines have addressed the genetic testing of minors in the clinical context. Most of these guidelines were crafted in response to the availability of disease and predisposition testing. If a minor is suspected of having a condition where obtaining genetic information is considered clinically useful—be it for diagnostic or treatment purposes—testing is, in general, viewed as an appropriate course of action.12 However, many existing guidelines have stressed that predictive and pre-symptomatic genetic testing during childhood or adolescence should only be performed for conditions for which preventive or therapeutic actions could and should be initiated.13 The underlying rationale is that minors should benefit directly from testing. In the absence of obvious health benefits, support for genetic testing of minors erodes, largely because of the belief that individuals should be able to make autonomous decisions about genetic testing when competent adults and that testing may have an unknown psychosocial impact.14 Given these concerns, it is not a surprise that most clinical guidelines and position papers are also critical of DTC genetic testing companies that test minors. The most recent guideline on the testing of minors was published by the American Academy of Pediatrics and the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics. In their statement, both societies ‘strongly discourage the use of direct-to-consumer and home kit genetic testing of children because of the lack of oversight on test content, accuracy, and interpretation’.15 In the technical report supporting the recommendation, Ross et al. refer to the risks of inaccurate results, inaccurate interpretations, potentially harmful interventions, issues of privacy, self-determination, and (non-) disclosure, as well as to the importance of professional involvement in any type of genetic testing on minors.16 Similar and additional concerns have been raised in other guidelines and position papers on DTC genetic testing,17 including the European Academies of Science Advisory Council, the Federation of European Academies of Medicine, and the European Society of Human Genetics.18 Existing policy documents, however, also note that not all concerns apply equally to all types of tests. The UK Human Genetics Commission, for example, acknowledged the importance of considering both the type of test provided and the impact of that test. In situations where tests could have a ‘significant or potentially detrimental impact on consumers’ appropriate support and professional advice is more important than in situations where testing might not create that type of impact.19 This also has consequences for genetic testing in minors, where the Human Genetics Commission would limit genetic testing in children for diagnostic tests, pre-symptomatic tests, carrier tests, susceptibility tests, and pharmacogenomics tests, but is not against allowing nutrigenomic tests and lifestyle/behavioral tests that have not been evaluated as ‘high impact’.20 Similarly, the Canadian College of Medical Geneticists described rather clearly that their statement applies to ‘medically significant genetic testing’ and stated in this line that ‘professional guidelines related to the practice of medical genetics should be adhered to, particularly with respect to genetic testing of children’.21 This distinction between ‘medically significant’ genetic tests on one hand and lifestyle-oriented, recreational, or informational types of genetic tests on the other hand creates room for a policy debate. Do these latter types of services that are aimed at issues not tied directly to health—such as athletic ability—or do not relate to something of immediate clinical relevance—such as diet—but that are often based on less-than-robust science, give rise to similar potential harms as ‘medically significant’ tests? Are the potential harms significant enough to trigger regulatory oversight? Most policy debates have focused on tests pertaining to predisposition to disease offered by DTC companies such as 23andMe and there has been little attention, at least from a policy perspective, on these more lifestyle-oriented genetic testing services. Indeed, many of the policy responses, such as those by professional societies, seem to assume, without much, if any, discussion, that there is potential for real clinical or health relevance, which requires oversight. Below we review in greater detail some of these ‘lifestyle’ types of tests and the potential policy issues they raise, especially when made available for use in children and adolescents. Companies throughout the world offer genetic testing for the purpose of assessing athletic ability. Atlas Sports Genetics, for example, provides a testing service that promises to ‘show athletes, trainers and interested individuals where their genetic advantage lies’.22 A UK company, DNA Fit, provides a test that will allow you to ‘explore your natural ability’.23 And Gonidio promises to ‘Identify your athletic strengths and weaknesses!’ and allows consumers to ‘Choose a sport that suits you!’24 The premise behind these companies is straightforward: get your genes tested and uncover your specific athletic potential (or lack thereof). We know of no evidence about how many minors (or their parents) are using these services.25 Indeed, an analysis of the marketing strategies of these companies found that they generally do not explicitly market their services to parents and kids,26 although some companies do specifically market to parents, encouraging them to test their children in order to discover their ‘inborn talents’, including—among other things—athletic abilities.27 Additionally, there have been reports of plans to use the technology on children in order to facilitate ‘sports selection at the molecular genetic level’.28 That said, it seems reasonable to assume that there is a potential market in this area.29 Many families invest huge sums in the sport activities of their children. They pay for expensive lessons and training programs, all in the hope of boosting their children's athletic careers. The cost to have one child play high-caliber minor hockey in Canada ranges from $8000 to $15,000 per year.30 The cost of having a child train as an aspiring Olympian can be even more significant. It has been estimated that competitive gymnastics, for example, averages about $15,000 per year.31 Sport is often a family commitment and the pressure to perform can come from the parents.32 Given this context, there seems a real possibility that some parents will want to maximize their child's odds at achieving athletic success through genetic testing.33 In addition, abundant evidence shows that adolescents will often go to great lengths to gain a competitive edge in their chosen sport. Given that a significant portion of teenagers are willing to take illegal performance enhancing drugs,34 getting a genetic test seems well within the scope of strategies some teenagers may pursue. Finally, for many of the sports associated with the athletic DTC genetic testing, such as American football and sprinting, testing at a relatively if the are to be as by the associated to and focus an athletic For these as a is for example, football as As one the child the it is to get a other Indeed, the idea of we are to sports or seems a largely aimed at individuals at the of their athletic careers. while these companies may not all their marketing at (or their this is the that should be most interested in using these services. The performance of these tests, if any, is from these DTC genetic testing services The existing evidence on at be described as is no that genes play an important in athletic as and been with many between and or even have not been The between genes and future athletic performance is from Indeed, most that athletic success from a of and a of other (eg the to have been raised in a As a these tests are to a given child or will into an sports Most of the scientific literature on the of the testing technology as a to future Indeed, as in a recent review of the science, genes are associated with athletic and are enough to their use in predicting athletic It is also that in many an and to test a child sprinting is to As with all it seems a to that genetic testing should be to the athletic future of children and adolescents. of the behind personalized is that genetic testing can be to in order to maximize health DTC genetic testing services are marketed as a to things like diet, and Indeed, the idea of personalized lifestyle advice is to most DTC genetic services and all DTC genetic testing companies and providers offering these types of tests the idea that their service can be to specific to from tests for disease these genetic tests are being offered for a wide range of including diet, and In the context of tests being marketed directly for use in children and additional tested for to general general for to and the child is a or In to being marketed directly to genetic testing services are also being offered by a range of health such as and Indeed, some DTC companies market their testing services to providers, encouraging them to make genetic testing of their It is no that these that likely has little or no training in the services as an important of an to health and as a to lifestyle naturopathic for example, that genetic testing service will you to your genetic using specific lifestyle and it is how the genetic testing market is for these type of services or how many children and adolescents are being But it is that there are some in both the and about testing children for a genetic predisposition to And on has found that most testing children and would like an obesity test to be Given that some parents will go to great lengths to the health of their it seems reasonable to that children and adolescents are being or will be tested for the purpose of lifestyle and health companies are offering genetic testing services for obesity predisposition that are directly for use in and testing be considered for children who are the of these tests information that will Is a personalized more the significant for personalized there is little evidence to support the idea that a personalized and is any than general health and lifestyle be it in the context of nutrition, or the being tested are the most scientifically genetic tests are from being predictive for example, a future risk of The being made on the of these tests by many companies not only lack evidence but in some are scientifically For example, one that the testing will reveal if you more that we can use genetic testing to the of a homeopathic which has no in there is no evidence that people use this information to make Indeed, the available evidence that genetic risk information not to This evidence largely from of however, and it is children will be more or parents may be more for when it in their children's than their Given the scientific or predictive of many of these testing services and the lack of any evidence of health what are the harms of testing children and adolescents in this context and are they significant enough to a policy about or harms to children that could from genetic testing. In the context of tests, it is possible that parents these tests to use on their children could have about the and of these tests which could to harmful For example, testing children for obesity or their to might to if parents their children's or them to and adolescents who testing on their may also these types of and about their genetic information and the significance (or lack of their genetic test is also the possibility that children or adolescents might forms of from parents, and others based on the belief that the information is more than it by parents or children for discourage parents from supporting and children from a sports interest if the genetic test not specific and could by sports It is also possible that children or parents could make decisions about the children based on about the of these tests. This could to or in children genetic to with their (or their existing or While how people to genetic information predisposition for disease that this information generally not have a significant on (eg it not in significant or it is this to the impact on children of genetic testing for athletic or This may be particularly to as the impact of testing on the impact of and be more and than what is in most of Indeed, evidence is to how children and their parents and respond to genetic testing more The to which decisions the of DTC genetic testing of children can be by as opposed to about potential is to debate. As genetic testing of children concerns about respect for children's including the to testing when they the of In clinical genetic testing, the is to children their by when adults about conditions that do not children. the reasons for this position to the same in to athletic and types of genetic testing is one the that the information provided by many of these tests is predictive and of no real benefit may in of a child's to or not to genetic testing when the child has the other given the of information that is often provided it is in some how much genetic information is being For example, test a for or are not likely a of a child's genetic The to be more a of in the marketing and of these tests. the that the information from these tests a child's or to make decisions that are with their however, there may be an This may be more in some tests, such as many of the focused tests, which for specific of a gene and have the potential to limit a child's to sports and However, the becomes a child's genetic predisposition for for example, the same of as a child's genetic predisposition for disease. If an genetic information in and of of lack of clinical relevance, is something that only autonomous individuals should have to and all forms of athletic and genetic testing of children by parents should be However, unless something about genetic information is more it is to why a genetic of a child's sprinting for example, should be while as the child while which is likely a more predictive should In the clinical genetic testing context, at is the child's to or not to discover or genetic of future health In the context of an athletic or genetic test that not any clinically or health information, the impact of the information will if that It is also important to consider the of the child or who to genetic testing and the potential for to with a child's right to know or information. the to athletic and genetic testing be like a medical where a child or has to a of capacity to be able to should these tests be like any other and if should there be for as is the case with and on the to these products because there are health risks and harms associated with their In the case of DTC genetic tests where of remains it is children and adolescents should be from these testing services if they it be for example, to a policy that would a child or a child's from on a or a The lack of any benefit for these types of athletic and tests that for to parents or children and adolescents the of providing information is Many of these companies seem to be simply leveraging the excitement surrounding genetics to market in to genetics to the scientific of the even when it if it is an genetic a this to the importance of information, the to the marketing of these tests, and the of parents and consumers about the and utility of these tests. While would the idea that these of athletic and genetic tests raise are the potential harms significant enough to trigger a regulatory For example, in the absence of parents are generally to take their children to or which reside outside or on the margins of scientific and many health advice that scientific but is, in not by available evidence or even the of (eg and testing by Is genetic testing in this context any or European have a on genetic testing more generally with that or DTC genetic a in the absence of even the possibility of is something to be of this may be to limit companies and providers from or these athletic and genetic testing products available to children and adolescents in a However, there are debates about the scope of these of they all forms of DTC genetic tests, and in is on the there may be issues with given that DTC genetic testing companies and do not to a in a given to or products to consumers who reside targeting the use of these products by consumers may be in the of this For example, regulatory could to limit the marketing and use of these services by health could be a to be tested or to a test. However, it is in such a is given the lack of evidence of may also be a for health and regulatory to these genetic tests. The in the for example, test for disease predisposition on the that this test was a the that some of the genetic tests offer information on or other traits, it is possible that they may also come within the to diagnostic and other types of medical In this the could take similar to response to 23andMe by companies from offering genetic tests that have not appropriate marketing In addition, the in some can the at which consumers can such as as well as the marketing of these products to limit children's to If the viewed genetic testing products as risks to children and it could potentially use a similar regulatory to the marketing and of these However, it is likely that athletic DTC genetic tests or some of the tests with clinical would come within the Additionally, it is that the regulatory in Canada or the would have any of these tests as these have the position that although DTC genetic testing may within their the testing service As a 23andMe is able to legally in both these and it is that a would be by these against companies offering athletic and types of tests, which have even health As many of the potential harms associated with these types of genetic tests to a lack of information and about the and of the genetic information there may be a for regulatory for in about potential in and have the to limit the types of that companies can For example, the US Commission against which offered genetic testing in with the of that were to DNA The an order from any the health benefits, or of and competent and scientific evidence that is in and based on generally in the scientific It seems that similar could be against many of the other DTC genetic testing companies offering athletic and tests. In addition, it may be to aimed at or the general public about the lack of scientific and of many of these tests. is evidence that consumers of DTC genetic testing health providers about test However, it is consumers of athletic and types of genetic tests would be equally likely to their providers about these of test results, which may limit the of this In addition, there may be in providing information to parents these tests for their children or to children and adolescents who may be considering genetic testing. Finally, future should focus on of the more and benefits and harms of athletic and genetic testing of children and adolescents. would impact on of and of and The lack of evidence of the benefits and harms of these services the for to guide policy The would like to the support for this provided by the and the as well as the Canadian of and through their support of We would also like to and all the of the for their an and a in of this no in the decisions about this

Wolfgang Johannsen

BIOLOGY has evidently borrowed the terms “heredity” and “inheritance” from everyday language, in which the meaning of these words is the “transmission” of money or things, rights or duties—or even ideas and knowledge —from one person to another or to some others: the “heirs” or “inheritors.” The transmission of properties—these may be things owned or peculiar qualities—from parents to their children, or from more or less remote ancestors to their descendants, has been regarded as the essential point in the discussion of heredity, in biology as in jurisprudence. Here we have nothing to do with the latter; as to biology, the students of this science have again and again tried to conceive or “explain” the presumed transmission of general or peculiar characters and qualities “inherited” from parents or more remote ancestors. The view of natural inheritance as realized by an act of transmission, viz., the transmission of the parent's (or ancestor's) personal qualities to the progeny, is the most naive and oldest conception of heredity. We find it clearly developed by Hippocrates, who suggested that the different parts of the body may produce substances which join in the sexual organs, where reproductive matter is formed. Darwin's hypothesis of “pangenesis” is in this point very consistent with the Hippocratic view, the personal qualities of the parent or the ancestor in question being the heritage. Also the Lamarckian view as to the heredity of “acquired characters” is in accordance with those old conceptions. The current popular definition of heredity as a certain degree of resemblance between parents and offspring, or, generally speaking, between ancestors and descendants, bears the stamp of the same conceptions, and so do the modern “biometrical” definitions of heredity, e.g., as “the degree of correlation between the abmodality of parent and offspring.” In all these cases we meet with the conception that the personal qualities of any individual organism are the true heritable elements or traits! This may be characterized as the “transmission-conception” of heredity or as the view of apparent heredity. Only superficial instruction can be gained by working on this basis. Certainly, medical and biological statisticians have in modern times been able to make elaborate statements of great interest for insurance purposes, for the “eugenics-movement” and so on. But no profound insight into the biological problem of heredity can be gained on this basis, for the transmission-conception of heredity represents exactly the reverse of the real facts, just as the famous Stahlian theory of “phlogiston” was an expression diametrically opposite to the chemical reality. The personal qualities of any individual organism do not at all cause the qualities of its offspring; but the qualities of both ancestor and descendant are in quite the same manner determined by the nature of the “sexual substances”—i.e., the gametes—from which they have developed. Personal qualities are then the reactions of the gametes joining to form a zygote; but the nature of the gametes is not determined by the personal qualities of the parents or ancestors in question. This is the modern view of heredity. The main result of all true analytical experiments in questions concerning genetics is the of the transmission-conception of heredity, and the different of as as have in that to the same point of view, the as we may the conception of heredity just Here we can not the of the ideas concerning heredity, not even in the but it be as a that a very great of the terms by the modern biological have been the of the and that the of and are not from that old may be words as “transmission” and The science of genetics is in a an science just as the in the times of who the an in chemical The as have the modern view of heredity, not from the old “transmission-conception” as but it from the of and who with more or less tried to the the great of the for the in of more in of and in of but have suggested that the elements for inheritance elements of or of the different or of the individual from the in question. has an elaborate hypothesis of heredity, that of the are of in the of a in the of a being in 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the with the we the question the of a may not be by some or from the individual organism in which the was developed. 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The of with and the experiments of that of the are by as no with has any for the Lamarckian view, the most to the experiments by for the of their have not but have the of some by and are at the same the in personal qualities being to the in are their of it is that their in biology as ideas has been most some cases of apparent of may have with Lamarckian e.g., of by as “the that has of the was that with analytical that has the great But at the the from the is in on the of for are for the the that the was not at all the of to point the of as to the of in The and more the The of or of in may be for the of not to we have an times by viz., the of with as it has been that we have the essential The in have been the the been from the and to the result be a of the those The to to no for the The are a to of with and in the of this are to any questions of and they make as to the nature of heredity and has the of as a be an in heredity. to the of it has been by e.g., that is a old and This is quite not in a manner the of but even tried a to But it can not be that the of as a true analytical as an of in as a at any and of a from this analytical been in the times of or it even been in by the the real of have been by the of The may then be characterized as and may to a certain with the most of of with a of for a a we may even that the may be as of the or ideas may as be but they are by the of The of a in question is the conception at by and is a between different This has been by may be as an In very on experiments with as that was as a of of and experiments to the Lamarckian view have as even these may be as all the of experiments is in quite in of But we in and that for a of the the is a The of in question is to this can not statements just as to their but accordance with conception the famous words from the be from and some very of have the for the is that we different as different in This is an essential but no in the to that view be In a very manner be for are the in the degree or of any as it different e.g., the of by and may be very as of the of the in and they a in The of the in question between the but this is not the e.g., with or even with very some of the are the between the may or may even with of as to the in the and is no as to their But that these are with the of between the to have the the of the the reactions of the may different all of or has nothing at all to do with or of of genetics to some may to has great the of in all of from to may be with different in of the to not from that be of may in one be different in e.g., the of the that of In another may or their may be of may produce and it is to that some of on the reverse is realized on In of both characterized by a degree of to produce in the the in of The are the of the in as as in the just are of just as as the of different chemical as to chemical it may be to that different chemical or of which are to be and may quite to point the of for different of and in different or in with The essential point in the matter of that a in the same manner all chemical or in as in chemical or are not to at less to do so in the same all even quite may be for the of as some are to a This is a in as in the of has the of this point for the the of as to the and are a of the and we find in current this of with and we even have with the that the of a may in in different or but that in they into one In this of the of the in a is that view has been by in this but be in the is not for an to with questions of and between the are the of and the of and is We have with some of the it is to at The of this of has an of and cases that at with the have been more on a and have quite in accordance with The of a of this of it may be that the most of the essential point in the of the personal in heredity. the same it the of as being by the of the that the personal qualities of the organism in are the of the reactions of the The of one of may have the the of for any to be even in cases where no of to as to the cases of it is not to of the in the or for their and being reactions of that may have in the be a of to the of different as as Here we meet with the questions of correlation and of can not into a discussion as to the of with its in a discussion is to be may point that cases of presumed correlation may be cases of or more characters to the even one The and even the that they are reactions of different The of and as to the are in some with of correlation and of The discussion of the for and as to may the of may be has in as to in a of the the of we an between the of and the the in manner may be able to of the the main of the a on this it may be suggested that the or of a may be more to from its the from the of the may be of any as working as to the of is the nature of these can not as a discussion be in that the is and and even have this the in their and has clearly that it may be quite to a is to or to the of a in the that can as be determined in this by is the of between the gametes a may be The facts, that a may be in some but in and that in different cases may be very that are The famous of as to the form of may be as an In the is in it is and in both cases the one has that is a of and from in one as with But from in with as in and in the with this it is as not to or is the form of for the of which the of are to be the most is the most may even be an expression for a of in the The of the by in all cases be and it is quite to that the of the in are in cases in but in as to with chemical reactions it be in that a may be the of of any as as the of any in the in question. The elaborate of of has very and the most is the most of any in question. The or in are quite the of in the it may be that for one may be elements for the of quite this be the then the of characterized by the of in the of different able to may be by a in which be any is no to that the the of into The of by of the of are a of interest in this to cases of in which and do not the it at be that some apparent are by of the for The experiments of and have to that may and be or as to the of the is no for or In inheritance we meet with of the same nature as in the of as the for the more or less of the different of in may the as has in cases the different degree of with which the of gametes is realized may the of in the as has Here we can not the in a of the a of concerning this Only one of may be viz., the to or In cases of inheritance the in question be to by the act of or, in accordance with the and the to the in some manner be In this which is very with the conception of as be of to be in the of the modern some cases in the of as to the of to be a the insight by experiments as as by concerning the of has the question in a The of and have to quite as to the of In cases no is no is in cases is no for any or of as to this has the in question. But cases of these as to the of the of are the most and most has in a and manner that the in with the be of cases to these and gained an with and was in But even this may with The for is has clearly of the concerning the of the with the of the of that of and in is a The is determined by different in the same and the of by and of these a of in be these the of the in question. we have to and we for the the which is between as and as in of no a as an and it is not to find that the of the of the be the of the so it is in the of experiments with as has clearly of heredity in concerning both and may be with in question. in that certain in for the view that we have no inheritance but true as as in the cases of as we may in the cases of may then in a more manner the true nature of the apparent in as we can that this not with be in that have been very between the in these experiments are with great and parts of the those may have can not be to it is that in may have great the and in a which into and to be into has a very the and form of the in question. Here are not the the of viz., that or characters may be determined by different and that one of may have different it that is in a very but may be even very for this the may be into But is to do in the as as to the is as the of be a with But all the of the of do not as to to the that the of and so on may be regarded as or of the and of all things in the as their This view is even in those cases where can be In the discussion as to the of true the have of a as characters of in cases where the elements of the in question are as it may be is not at all for the of But the of for is quite different from the that elements have for the of heredity. The question of as the presumed of to be an not able to any for “the of the in the The organism is in its and by its parts of the individual are as to In has been no as to this and as to has for a the same view the of and who have suggested that is determined or at any by a of the we the in the of the The of and the of parts in the individual may their the of the But these as a not or the of the in question. on we the problem of by Here we have to point the that with a more those substances or the reactions of which we of characterized by the of The of the of their to that this as as the and of in the some of the of The discussion of to the question of or In the of modern of presumed of in e.g., as to in But more analytical experiments have in cases in the the characters in question to be more reactions at has the question in a quite a working the be not of but of the gametes as a not be as the by of the of a with be of of the that this be able to “the of so with in and so or by Here we again the question of that the by and are more consistent with the real nature of the in question. the has not been able to that cases of are of but even the as to in and by as a not to any real for cases as has viz., nature being for in some may at the of being to or to different of in the in question. But a to the real of The very of as to the of certain characters in have clearly a or a in of any be in that a of are in and these concerning all and a to the of all it be suggested that in parts of the some of may or even the of which the The to be to the of by e.g., the of and of Here we the of in or with so by be a for the of the in e.g., for the nature of the of the (or for the in not be produce at are to point that may have a as to but that this question is in of the problem of or may be but the in modern genetics in the of as the we the of as an essential for the of matter in and for the or of we in of to find in the of and the of the and in be But this is not the The experiments of in a manner the of in the a degree of and in things it we may in modern genetics be of the and of that things in nature may be and the in heredity we may the in nature as as in more of the famous of and the of to the modern of and all as to point the of the in question. Here we not the it is to that the essential point is the or of of the The experiments of as to have in the most manner that the which produce the in this viz., the and of are able to act in a manner the of the and has the of in with the may in some cases be certain to be by but it is that in all is the in the of to the of which may the of of be that are from by in be with But is no for this in the between the in characters may be a of as it be is not at all with has the between the of in and in and as the in nature have all as in experiments with The chemical to may be the of and so on. The may be by more But are of very for the of The by the great of experiments as to and not personal as a of any as by and been are meaning from point of of characters gained to an of and the may the of as to may be as to the old question of this problem in the famous cases of has in a most manner been into terms by the and experiments of and This of the and has been for for the The not to a true or of heredity, but may be regarded as an for an that in its may be to be and even all may some to But as it to be the most in may then be as the of in ancestors and descendants, or, as in accordance with this heredity for those of the that find their expression in the and developed it is to this for its real but for the and of the great problem of heredity. In this the of famous as in as in has been the for the and the old in This is a in the of the of it at and to ideas of and in and a great of the of But just these qualities have the of for the analytical of modern which has in a true in