Blockchain Papers

SUBHRANSHU ACHARYA & MEHANA CHAKRABORTY

As the world is witnessing the emergence of Metaverse, which is an immersive decentralised digital environment, there has been a sudden rise in unprecedented cross border economic and social activities which has facilitated transactions through the medium of virtual goods, NFTs, digital avatars and user generated content. This shift deviates from the conventional definition of Intellectual property and hence presents a notable threat in the territorial and national legal systems that is built on the roots of these grundnorm leading to substantial jurisdictional and enforcement gaps. This paper adopts a systemic literature review method by blending academic research, legal precedents, and policy documents to put forward how the core concepts of metaverse like user anonymity, decentralized blockchain structures, instantaneous duplication of digital assets, and borderless virtual economies unsettle the framework of traditional frameworks of intellectual property. With the help of comparative analysis of landmark case like Hermès International v. Rothschild, Nike v. Stock X, and Juventus F.C. v. Blockeras, the study puts forward the different challenges that the modern-day courts are facing in tackling with emerging virtual disputes while implementing the copyright and trademark doctrines. The paper further delves into the efficiency of international agreements like TRIPS and the Berne Convention in underlining the dispersion in global regulatory services. Alongside problem identification, this paper also proposes a hybrid framework that would bring together blockchain verification, cryptographic rights management, AI-based monitoring, legal harmonization with the help of model treaties and statutory reforms accompanying decentralised arbitration mechanisms. The study concludes that effective, equitable, and sustainable IP enforcement in the metaverse requires coordinated international cooperation, collaborative multi-stakeholder governance models balancing robust IP pr...

Victoria Kovalenko, Sergii Sheludko, Elena Sergeeva

In the context of the unprecedented pace of digital transformation and the escalation of geopolitical risks, traditional methods of monetary regulation require a fundamental reconsideration. Problem statement. The evolution of cyber threats – from financial fraud to complex operations involving artificial intelligence – poses significant risks to macroeconomic stability. The development of an integrated protection system based on central bank digital currencies (CBDCs) and SupTech instruments constitutes a critical prerequisite for preserving financial sovereignty, particularly for Ukraine in the context of European integration and martial law. Unresolved aspects of the problem. The theoretical substantiation and development of practical recommendations for integrating advanced digital instruments (CBDC, artificial intelligence, distributed ledger technology (DLT), and SupTech) into monetary and prudential policy mechanisms in order to form a comprehensive cybersecurity framework for the financial sector remain insufficiently addressed. Purpose of the article. The purpose of this article is to provide a theoretical substantiation and to develop practical recommendations for integrating modern digital instruments (such as artificial intelligence, blockchain technologies, and SupTech) into monetary and prudential policy mechanisms in order to establish a comprehensive cybersecurity system for the financial sector. The study is grounded in a systemic approach to analysing the coordination of regulatory policies. The methodology includes comparative legal analysis (comparing the models of the e-hryvnia and the Digital Euro), structural and functional modelling (two-tier CBDC architecture), and scenario analysis to identify cyber risks (including DDoS attacks and smart contract vulnerabilities) and methods for their mitigation. Presentation of the main material. A model of hybrid coordination has been developed, in which cybersecurity is integrated directly into the mechanism of monetary transmission. It has been demonstrated that the programmability of the e-hryvnia and the application of Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKP) technologies enable the automation of prudential supervision while preserving user privacy. Global case studies (China, the European Union, and the Bahamas) have been analysed, and the specific features of the Ukrainian e-hryvnia project have been identified as instruments for enhancing transparency and cyber resilience. For the first time, it is proposed to consider a central bank digital currency not only as a means of payment but also as an active element of the cyber-prudential system, enabling the dynamic adjustment of liquidity and limits under conditions of real cyberattacks. The concept of convergence between SupTech and RegTech systems based on unified distributed ledgers has been further developed. The proposed architectural model and cyber-risk matrix may be utilised by the National Bank of Ukraine in the finalisation of the e-hryvnia project and in the development of digital operational resilience standards in accordance with the DORA regulation. Conclusions. It has been demonstrated that digitalisation transforms the regulator into an architect of a secure financial environment. Further research will focus on the interoperability of CBDCs across countries and the role of artificial intelligence in preventing manipulation in digital asset markets.

Oleksandr Kostyen

This study substantiates blockchain analytics as a specialized expert tool for detecting the legalization of criminal proceeds under wartime conditions. The purpose is to systematize the methodological foundations of distributed ledger forensics and develop a conceptual model for its integration into Ukraine’s financial monitoring system. The implementation involves a comparative analysis of scholarly sources and a review of international regulatory standards in the field of anti-money laundering. Graph neural networks ensure an accuracy of 91 to 96 percent in detecting illicit transactions, and the dominant schemes for laundering wartime proceeds are sanctions arbitrage through stablecoins, fund mixing, and DeFi-based legalization through decentralized protocols. The immutability of records in the distributed ledger creates a unique evidentiary environment that enables retrospective analysis of transaction chains even after laundering operations have been completed. The findings confirm the necessity of fully implementing FATF Recommendation 15 and establishing specialized crypto-forensics units within the structure of domestic law enforcement agencies. The proposed four-level model, encompassing data collection, graph analysis, scheme identification, and evidence formation, defines a practical path toward standardizing crypto-forensics in domestic forensic expert practice and improving the effectiveness of financial investigations.

Abdelwahab Mansour Alenezi, Muaath Suleiman Almulla

<p>It seems that humans have gone too far in creating technological industries; it also seems that they have lost control over the ethics of developing their various tools. If the legal system in the past faced a major challenge in protecting the rights and interests of those dealing with the Internet from the misuse of information-technology tools, it now faces a new challenge after Mark Zuckerberg’s announcement (owner of Facebook, which changed its name to “Meta Platforms”) of his commitment to developing the virtual world he called “Metaverse” – a world that blends reality and fantasy, allowing users to interact with one another with real emotions in three-dimensional virtual environments completely similar to reality. This paper aims to define the nature of metaverse technology and study the extent to which criminal laws are prepared to face the challenges it poses, especially with the emergence of criminal activities through it. To this end, the research followed a descriptive and analytical approach in presenting the topic and was divided into three parts: Firstly, explaining the nature of metaverse technology. Secondly, Describing examples of attacks in this environment. Lastly, Addressing the extent to which criminal laws are prepared to face the challenges of metaverse technology. The research concluded that the metaverse is a recent phenomenon in the cyberspace environment, which began through the electronic-gaming portal and has become a business environment in various fields through blockchain platforms and non-fungible tokens (NFTs). Avatars are a form of personal data that identify users for access to the metaverse and may themselves become the subject or tool of criminal activities. The paper also found that the danger lies in the uncontrolled acceleration of technological development. The metaverse, without legal safeguards, is fertile ground for numerous crimes. Criminal activities in the metaverse are modeled on cybercrimes given their nature and characteristics. Consequently, the research recommends that legislators review substantive and procedural laws to ensure effective responses at both international and national levels, to adopt the idea of electronic legal personality, and to refrain from rushing to introduce practices and services in this environment until clear legal frameworks define obligations and responsibilities.</p>

Ziyamov Boburkhon

Diplomatic authentication has long depended on verifiable, tamper-proof instruments. Traditional paper-based systems provided this assurance through physical means. Digital diplomacy has disrupted that assurance, creating serious vulnerabilities in the authentication of diplomatic communications and records. Blockchain technology, as a form of distributed ledger technology, offers a transformative solution. It creates cryptographically secured, immutable, and decentralized records that no previous technology has achieved in the diplomatic sphere. However, existing international legal frameworks remain structurally ill-equipped to govern blockchain-based diplomatic records. This study examines the intersection of blockchain technology and diplomatic law. It employs a qualitative, doctrinal, and document analysis methodology, drawing exclusively on scholarly legal literature. The study identifies critical gaps in the Vienna Conventions and proposes a three-tier model for blockchain integration in diplomatic practice. It recommends targeted legal reforms at both national and international levels. States like Uzbekistan can serve as norm entrepreneurs in shaping emerging international standards for digital diplomatic authentication.

Cheng Junru, Li Na, Toksobaev Bulat T, Kambarova Zhumagul Ularbaevna · 5 authors

Despite regional integration frameworks like the Lisbon Recognition Convention, cross-border academic mobility in Central Asia remains constrained by fragmented credential verification systems. This inefficiency stems from the absence of interoperable infrastructure and asymmetric institutional capacity across national systems. This paper employs a comparative case study to analyze how Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan manage credential recognition. We identify that while Kazakhstan has centralized its digital governance, Kyrgyzstan operates under a bifurcated model where academic and scientific degrees are verified by separate bodies. To address this, we propose the Central Asian Blockchain Education Alliance (CABEA), a consortium blockchain framework acting as a "middleware" layer. This architecture allows for functional centralization without requiring administrative consolidation. Based on the technical specifications of Hyperledger Fabric, the proposed model has the potential to reduce cross-border verification time from weeks to near-instantaneous automated queries. We conclude that distributed ledger technology offers a scalable path for regional educational integration by bridging the gap between divergent state infrastructures.

Vladislav Velitsko

Abstract. The development of technologies for creating combat drones from civilian drones, the expansion of the practice of using these drones in ongoing military conflicts of varying intensity, as well as the development of artificial intelligence (AI) systems and the possibility of various combinations of AI with combat drones, constitute an already occurring, not yet fully understood, global security challenge that is dangerous for any existing country. The paper also examines the problem of an individual customer outsourcing the commission of an act of revenge or a terrorist attack to individual perpetrators, groups of perpetrators, as well as to AI systems that act autonomously using telecommunications networks, such as the Internet, robotics, and that conduct financing using cryptocurrencies. The security threats discussed here, in the context of the emergence of UAVs and other combat-purpose drones in private hands – supplied both from active armies and manufactured independently – represent a dual combination of threats to the established world order and opportunities for society. And it is clear that the security threat is not some ephemeral threat to the security of some ordinary voter, whose life and fate do not, in reality, interest anyone from the ruling stratum at all. The real security threat is the threat to the life, health, capital, and power of the stratum that rules society, as well as the risk that the service personnel of this stratum – in the form of intelligence services, security and judicial bodies, as well as the legislative branch – will be afraid to carry out the orders given to them, both those involving blatant violations of the law and those involving its simulated enforcement, aimed at continuing the exploitation of society under the guise of observing the constitution and other laws, conducting “a dog-and-pony version of democracy.” The other side of the coin manifests itself as “frontier justice” – the ability for an ordinary person to defend their violated rights even when the violator has an overwhelming advantage in the form of administrative, judicial, and financial resources. It should be taken into account that modern technologies – not only the combination of outsourcing with the use of public computer networks (Public Data Networks, PDN) to commit a crime, or the possibility of direct remote control of a drone, but also the possibility of using a drone with built-in AI deliberately trained to strike a target – are merely the tip of the iceberg that the “Titanic” of the established security system will collide with. Further technological development, in particular decentralized AI using Web 3.0 / Web3, will make it possible to use AI as the executor of a deceased person’s will, while transferring to the AI the necessary financial resources in cryptocurrency (including programming the AI to further criminal acquisition of funds for its activities), combined with the ability to use fab labs or to have the AI itself hire contractors, creates for the targets of an attack aimed by such an AI a situation of the inevitability of retribution. At the same time, these capabilities can be extrapolated to any life situations – for example, those involving deprivation of liberty, such as in connection with the abduction of any person following the example of the abduction of N. Maduro, or situations such as bankruptcy resulting from the bad-faith actions of counterparties. At the same time, the risk of retribution in the process of defending violated rights affects both rank-and-file executors – such as police officers and judges – and the real masters of the country in the form of the public and non-public elite. The latter situation – the threat to the lives of the elite – already appears to be a real problem requiring a solution. After all, it would be extremely painful for the ruling strata of countries that have fought wars and then reconciled – the main beneficiaries of the past war – to answer to the victims for crimes committed both during the war and during mobilization, even if the terms of peace provide for full amnesty. An absolutely unfamiliar sense of danger will also emerge among the ruling strata governing states that ignite wars and create crises, since they now find themselves in a vulnerable position. This situation is further aggravated by the fact that information – both factual and conspiracy theories – is now widely accessible and can serve as grounds for attacks on representatives of well-known families, both by informed individuals and by mentally ill people. Would the issue of depriving Denmark of Greenland even be on the agenda now if, during the 2024 assassination attempts on D. Trump (AP News, 2025; Reuters, 2025), terrorists had used not firearms but a group of fiber-optic drones with centralized AI trained to recognize its target? The third side of the coin will be the need to minimize offenses in society and to introduce mechanisms of genuine democracy and accountability of the authorities for the results of their activities, when the overwhelming majority of the population is involved in decision-making – from ensuring the functioning of a city district to the election of sheriffs, judges, prosecutors, and all the way to voting on draft laws as well as federal elections (see the experience of Switzerland). This system will make it possible to reduce the number of legal violations by representatives of the ruling strata and to hold them accountable for both past and ongoing crimes without the need for extrajudicial reprisals by private individuals. Concluding the enumeration of the main aspects of changes in public life caused by the development of private combat robotics, let us also consider the fourth side of the same coin. All the technologies and capabilities discussed can be implemented by a wide range of individuals with disturbed psyches, for example religious fanatics, as well as by criminal elements, for whom new technologies present the broadest opportunities for blackmail, robberies, and extortion. And it is precisely against such individuals that it will be necessary to create a security system of a new quality – one that does not yet exist – a security system costing hundreds of billions of euros for each country deploying it, ensuring comprehensive protection of society from new types of threats. Of course, it may seem that the development of such a security system is possible without social modernization of relations in society and without the introduction of mechanisms of real democracy. It may seem that the implementation of a police state based on a digital concentration camp is more preferable. Perhaps – but this would require conducting an experiment, for example following the model of Pakistan or the DPRK, where the ruling military or party elite lives isolated from the main part of the population. In doing so, the ruling stratum would have to survive under new conditions of total war with its own population, from whom, for the sake of “security,” absolutely all remaining freedoms would be taken away, following the example of the DPRK. The application of AI that can operate in our world after the death of the person for whom the AI serves as executor proves that the empirical rule “you can’t take your money with you” is gradually losing its meaning: AI or artificial consciousness (AC) makes it possible to practically and almost inevitably implement the will of either the deceased or, say, a person who has been imprisoned or kidnapped, as well as someone who has found themselves in other situations that limit their ability to act. In this regard, the next customer ordering the next kidnapping of N. Maduro will think very hard about whether it is worth dying from retaliatory actions by AI, or from the actions of an actor who has decided that the triggering event for the AI’s predefined action cycle has occurred. At the same time, an actor in the form of decentralized AI cannot be intimidated, bought, or destroyed. In effect, new technologies put at the disposal of private individuals and organizations what previously only states had at their disposal, in particular an analogue of a system like “Perimeter” (RVSN RF index 15E601, known in journalism as “Dead Hand”) (Stilwell, 2022). Of course, the AI (or AC) systems discussed above – first and foremost decentralized AI, designed so that they cannot be influenced or have their operating order changed either by shutdown or by blackmail involving the risk of shutdown – may also inherently carry socially constructive tasks. Already now, AI systems can function as independent and autonomous executors, even though they still contain certain built-in technological limitations. Even this, however, already makes it possible to use such systems effectively both as operational AI assistants and as systems for auditing human decisions for compliance with specified goals and/or means (Gudkov, 2020; Cowger, 2023; Li, 2024; Bell, 2025; Brennan, 2025; Brown, 2025). Here and throughout, wherever AI is discussed, the possibility of using an IS is also implied – one that differs from AI by the presence of a software equivalent of will. The rate at which AI systems operating in the PDN evolve into IS systems also operating in the PDN is not considered here, nor is the time it takes for laboratory IS systems to enter the PDN. And, as practice shows, innovations are primarily directed toward the sphere of committing crimes – for example, the elimination of undesirable individuals – an activity engaged in both by independent criminals, such as roaming bandits, and by the intelligence services and ministries of defense of stationary bandits – states. In this regard, although the fully robotic technologies discussed above, which do not involve human intervention in their operation from the moment of launch, can also be used for constructive activities, their priority emergence in cri

Vadim Tsyvian

LAYER 0: RESTORING REAL-WORLD ONTOLOGY TO DIGITAL ARCHITECTURE The Restoration of Digital Legal Personality through Object-to-Subject Transformation This paper proposes restoring the ontological logic of the physical world within the digital realm. In physical reality, Layer 0 (corporeal presence) implicitly guarantees that an agent is a Subject. The digital world lost this layer, leading to a critical systemic error: the granting of legal capacity to "dead" Objects (code), which results in the mass voidness of transactions due to Vitiated Consent (Defect of Will). The author introduces the concept of Object-to-Subject Transformation. We assert that the only way to eliminate this legal voidness is to re-introduce the human will as a tangible force. The Core Mechanism: The solution is the Organization of the Stream. By actively directing a continuous flow of entropy tokens from physical reality to a digital entity, the human performs a volitional act. This active organization is the endowment of Will, which ontologically transforms the digital entity from an inert Object into a capable Subject. Key Contributions: Restoration of Reality: Layer 0 re-establishes the physical-to-digital link that was lost in standard TCP/IP architecture. Elimination of Voidness: By ensuring "No Will = No Action," the protocol prevents transactions that would be legally void ab initio. Discrete Subjectivity: Legal personality becomes a dynamic state that exists strictly during the moment of active human engagement (Stream Organization). Conclusion This work integrates legal theory and cryptography to create a post-quantum standard of trust, where the human remains the sole source of Subjectivity, preventing the legal and ontological collapse of the digital economy. Keywords: Layer 0, Object-to-Subject Transformation, Digital Legal Personality, Discrete Legal Personality, Sybil Resistance, Capacity to Act, AI Liability, Vitiated Consent, ZK-PoB, Proof of Personhood, Biological Entropy, Model Collapse, Web3 Security, Digital Identity, Intentional Entropy

Марк Энтин, Екатерина Энтина

Over the past decade, profound changes of various kinds have simultaneously occurred in the international environment and political systems, political regimes, and their functioning in a significant number of countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Americasthat is, on all continents. All of these profound changes have had serious and, naturally, diverse multidirectional consequences for the perception of human rights, attitudes towards them, their normative protection, and practice of human rights. Moreover, they have coincided with the revolutionary restructuring of polities at the international, regional, and national levels under the influence of their technological rearmament, digitalization, robotization, and the routinization of the everyday use of artificial intelligence, distributed ledgers, and breakthrough biotechnologies. This presentation and its journal version examine the most debated, controversial. self-contained, multidirectional trends and countertrends in the development of human rights, their protection, defense, and the practice of observing and violating them.

José Antonio Siqueira Pontes, Clara Coelho Mangolin

Abstract: Access to financial resources by individuals, corporations, and governments must undergo impact assessments concerning human rights. Public and private governance bodies exert influence over the global financial landscape, ensuring compliance with frameworks such as the UN’s 2030 SDGs through the "Equator Principles" and the "Principles for Responsible Investment." The article aims to analyze the effects of digital tools on responsible financing, such as through the decentralization of financial systems for credit access. It explores the use of artificial intelligence (AI) integrated into "smart contracts," the consumer credit market, especially on peer-to-peer lending platforms, and other fintech solutions for achieving ESG goals like poverty reduction. However, the use of AI and "smart contracts" may also pose risks to human rights. The primary approach involves reviewing international literature to identify emerging risks. The expected outcome is a comprehensive analysis of recent trends and challenges related to corporate social responsibility in the financial sector, particularly regarding human rights in the digital era.

Filippo Zatti

This article examines whether blockchain-based decentralization poses challenges to the legal order amenable to incremental regulatory adaptation, or with structural inadequacies in its very foundations. Legal orders presuppose the identification of subjects – natural persons, legal entities, public authorities – to whom rights and obligations are attributed. Attribution unfolds across three constitutive dimensions: territory, language, and embodied legal subjectivity. Blockchain technology and autonomous decentralized systems – Decentralized Autonomous Organizations, Decentralized Finance protocols – destabilize each, operating without identifiable centres of accountable authority. The challenge is therefore structural, not regulatory: as centres of attribution recede, legal categories lose the referent that grounds their meaning. Regulatory responses – the MiCAR Regulation, US enforcement actions – vest accountability in identifiable subjects. Integrating decentralized technologies thus brings to light the need to reconstitute identifiable centres of attribution: not a mere adaptation of the existing normative framework, but an exercise in institutional innovation.

O. V. Kuzmenko, P. Y. Kravchuk

The article is devoted to virtual assets (cryptocurrency) as a subject of a criminal offense from the point of view of its definition and proof. It is noted that cryptocurrency is characterized by a high level of anonymity, since the personal data of the owners of electronic wallets (in particular, the user’s name or address) are not disclosed, and identification is carried out only using a unique set of characters, which does not allow to identify the person. At the same time, information about transactions is open, and all operations with cryptocurrency are anonymous and irreversible. That is, in a broad sense, cryptocurrency is a digital intangible asset that functions as a settlement system with a dynamically changing value, has a predominantly anonymous nature and is not under the control of central banks. The most famous cryptocurrencies include Bitcoin, Ethereum, Dash, Ripple, Monero, Litecoin, Augur, MaidSafeCoin, etc. At the same time, the most famous and expensive of them is Bitcoin – the first decentralized digital currency, created in 2008, which is used to exchange for goods or services using blockchain technology. And the exchange of cryptocurrencies for real money is carried out through online platforms, electronic payment systems or specialized exchange services. It was established that there are no other norms in the current criminal legislation that would directly mention virtual assets or cryptocurrency. In practice, this leads to the fact that investigators and prosecutors in criminal proceedings related to cryptocurrencies act in fact at their own discretion, making procedural decisions, carrying out the seizure of digital assets and organizing their storage without a clearly defined legal mechanism. As a result, the issue of the further legal fate of the seized crypto-assets remains unregulated and is resolved situationally. It is concluded that virtual assets (cryptocurrency) can be the subject of many criminal offenses. For example, fraud (when deception is used when selling or exchanging it for real currency), theft (secret theft of property using a certain computer program), extortion or illicit enrichment (since cryptocurrency can be easily converted into fiat currency, which is quite difficult to track later), etc.

Poppy L. A. Schoenberg

Legacy, profit-driven organizational structures often lack the adaptability, equity, and innovation required for the evolving complexities of contemporary patient-centered care. They can limit access, constrain options, impose financial burdens, and hinder optimized delivery. Here, we propose a new architecture for metaversal integrative healthcare using decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs). Blockchain technology and smart contracts underpin equitable, transparent, and resilient health ecosystems beyond institutional gatekeeping and entrenched hierarchies. Central to this innovation is the introduction of Ecosystem Value Networks (EVNs), which quantify how diverse contributors, including patients, function as “wellness stewards” within decentralized, interconnected networks of value. EVNs represent a paradigm shift from transactional, top-down authority structures toward relational, emergent, and self-perpetuating interconnected systems. By programming prosocial principles into the architecture of DAOs via governance tokens, digitally encoded collective voting, autonomous smart contract enforcement, and transparency-by-design; these dynamics intrinsically reinforce collaborative over competitive behaviors and outcomes. Traditional institutions often reward dominance, prestige, and hierarchy, that represent conditioned patterns rooted in ancestral scarcity-based modes of fear and control; ill-suited for equitable healthcare. DAOs and EVNs, in contrast, condition new modes of operation grounded in abundance, interdependence, and shared stewardship. Over time, these digital frameworks can transform how health knowledge is generated, distributed, and enacted, establishing a “new normal” from the inside out, in which interconnectivity defines leadership and value. Moving from vision to strategy, this work maps a pathway toward truly participatory (opposed to nominal or symbolic), adaptive, and value-responsive healthcare systems for the new digital age.

O.I. Musii

The article explores the potential of blockchain technology and smart contracts in the field of public administration. The emphasis is on the legal challenges that arise in the process of implementing relevant innovations, as well as on the opportunities they open up for increasing transparency, efficiency, and trust in state institutions. The relevance of the topic is due to global digitalization processes, the need to modernize public administration, and the growing demand from society for openness and public control over the work of state authorities. The novelty of the study lies in the study of the legal aspect of integrating decentralized technologies into the public sphere, which has not yet been sufficiently developed in the Ukrainian legal community. The international experience of regulating smart contracts is analyzed, legal gaps in Ukrainian legislation are identified, and proposals for its improvement are formulated. The results obtained may be useful for legislators, representatives of state bodies, and researchers in the field of digitalization of processes in public administration. Furthermore, the research highlights practical applications of blockchain and smart contracts in various public administration sectors, including digital identity management, tax collection, social welfare distribution, and property registration. By examining pilot projects and international case studies, the study demonstrates how these technologies can streamline administrative processes, reduce bureaucracy, and minimize the risk of corruption. The findings suggest that a gradual, regulated integration of blockchain solutions could significantly enhance operational efficiency and citizen satisfaction. Finally, the study addresses the potential risks and limitations associated with blockchain adoption in the public sector, including high implementation costs, technological challenges, and legal uncertainty. It emphasizes the importance of developing comprehensive regulatory frameworks, establishing clear standards for smart contract usage, and ensuring that public sector employees are equipped with the necessary technical skills. The paper concludes that while blockchain offers transformative opportunities, its successful adoption in public administration depends on a balanced approach that combines technological innovation with legal and institutional preparedness.

D. H. Borzianytsia

The article provides a comprehensive analysis of the constitutional and legal aspects of digital intellectual property in the context of the development of the information society and Ukraine's accelerated digital transformation under wartime conditions.It examines the impact of emerging technologies, particularly artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain, and non-fungible tokens (NFTs), on the transformation of traditional concepts of authorship, ownership, and creative freedom.Special attention is paid to the need for reinterpreting constitutional guarantees enshrined in Articles 41 and 54 of the Constitution of Ukraine through the lens of technological neutrality and contemporary digital realities.The study focuses on the challenges of identifying authorship in works generated with the use of artificial intelligence, as well as on the legal nature of ownership rights to digital assets, including NFTs.It also analyzes the role of the Constitutional Court of Ukraine in shaping the doctrine of digital rights and adapting constitutional interpretation to the challenges of the digital era.Particular emphasis is placed on the importance of digital intellectual property for Ukraine's post-war recovery, especially in the context of developing a national Digital IP Strategy aligned with European approaches and initiatives.The article substantiates the conclusion that the constitutional modernization of intellectual property law is necessary to ensure a balance between human rights, technological innovation, open access to knowledge, and national resilience.Such an approach will contribute to the harmonization of Ukraine's legal system with European and international standards while preserving the human-centered nature of legal regulation in the field of creative activity in the digital age.

A. I. Tsymbaliuk

This article offers a comprehensive analysis of the current state of legal regulation of blockchain technology and smart contracts in Ukraine and examines their underlying legal nature. Written against the backdrop of global innovations and practical applications of distributed-ledger technology, the study addresses the urgent need to harmonise Ukraine’s regulatory framework with that of the European Union. Adopting an interdisciplinary perspective, the author integrates legal, economic, and technological considerations, viewing blockchain not merely as an innovative IT infrastructure but also as a socio- legal phenomenon capable of transforming tax, registration, and corporate processes. The introduction substantiates the relevance of the research: the rapid expansion of the digital economy, the widespread adoption of virtual assets, and the imperative to reduce corruption risks in the public sector all necessitate legislative adaptation and the introduction of new legal concepts. The purpose of the article is to develop a national regulatory model that reconciles technological innovation with the principles of transparency, legal certainty, and protection of market participants’ rights. The core of the study focuses on five potential areas for deploying blockchain in public administration: electronic tax reporting, accounting for electronic invoices, automated tax payments via smart contracts, an open register of taxpayers, and real-time monitoring of goods flows. The author demonstrates that implementing these solutions can reduce operational costs for businesses, significantly decrease errors and fraud, and enhance public trust in state institutions. Special attention is given to the legal status of NFTs and other tokenised assets. Based on an analysis of Ukrainian and international legislation, the article argues that the transfer of economic copyrights via NFTs requires a written (including electronic) agreement bearing a qualified electronic signature, clearly defined licensing terms, and integration with official state registers to verify legal title.

Vasyl Kozii, Інга Георгіївна Каланча, Ganna Vlasova, Andriy Orlean

The article is devoted to studying the problems of recording electronic evidence in criminal proceedings regarding crimes committed in Ukraine using cryptocurrencies, which is relevant in view of the significant spread and use of cryptocurrencies and crimes committed through their use. During the study, the methods of system analysis and technical-legal analysis were employed, alongside the formal-logical method. The shortcomings in the legal regulation of the investigation of crimes committed using cryptocurrencies were highlighted. Practical recommendations have been developed for involving experts in the fields of computer technologies, programming, and information security in the recording of electronic evidence in criminal proceedings concerning crimes committed with the use of cryptocurrencies. The requirements for recording electronic evidence while investigating crimes committed using cryptocurrencies (virtual assets) are formulated. In particular, the need to copy, archive and hash files is specified. The use of appropriate software is suggested. The practical significance of the study is that the obtained results can be used by operatives, investigators, prosecutors and detectives during the investigation of crimes of the studied category, as well as during further scientific research on the specified topic.

I. H. Kovalenko-Chukina, L. V. Mashkovska

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Василь Іванович Козій

The article is devoted to the investigation of the confiscation of cryptocurrency (virtual assets) during the execution of court decisions in criminal proceedings. The topic of the research is relevant because the cryptocurrency industry is currently more developed than the legal regulation of this area. Equally impressive is the number and methods of committing crimes of illegal possession of cryptocurrency. However, until now there are no studies in Ukraine that would determine at the doctrinal level how to execute a court decision on the confiscation of cryptocurrency. In the process of research, the formal-logical method, as well as the methods of systemic and technical-legal analysis were applied, which made it possible to formulate approaches to the execution of punishment in the form of confiscation of cryptocurrency and the rules of such confiscation. The need to provide at the legislative level for the grounds, procedure and rules for the confiscation of cryptocurrency, as well as its special confiscation, is indicated. The experience of confiscation of cryptocurrency in other jurisdictions is presented and the optimal algorithm and procedure for carrying out such activities is proposed. Cases that may occur in the context of confiscation of cryptocurrency are identified and rules and approaches to such confiscation are formulated.

LLP «RT-GROUP», M.M. Bazarov, R.A. Tokatov

The purpose of the study is to study smart contracts, which are one of its main components, which support the main connection between the parties forming social relations, using the innovative technology —blockchain technology. It is focused on the analysis of the formation ofsmart contracts and the peculiarities of legal regulation in domestic and international relations. To form smart contracts, its general concept and specific features, the potential of blockchain technology in forming smart contracts are studied. Priorities and weaknesses of the technological system in the formation of smart contracts are revealed. Foreign experiences have been studied, and the basis of the legislation of Kazakhstan, including civil law legislation, has been studied for the implementation of smart contract formation technology mechanisms. The advantages and disadvantages of smart contracts, which play an important role in the implementation of blockchain technology, are discussed, and the situations that allow them to be prevented are explained. As a result of the research, the legal basis for the introduction of this information and communication technology into the Kazakh legislation was determined. Conclusions about smart contracts, which rapidly develop blockchain technology, are important as scientific research opens the way for legal research in this direction, considering contractual relations in social relations as a tool for improving them. The practical significance of the research will be to increase the efficiency of the measures taken in the formation of smart contracts, to contribute to the development of electronic contractual relations that allow the formation of public relations at a high-quality legal level, and as a result, to create the basis for social and economic development. Research results can be used in the formation of smart contracts, public and quasi-public procurement, public service provision, and many other areas.

Ivan Ivanovich Kiryushin, Igor' Petrovich Ivanov, Viktor Vladimirovich Timofeev, D Yu Zhmurko

This article explores the possibilities of using blockchain technology in police work. Examples of the use of blockchain in various areas of police activity, such as personal data management, control of drug trafficking and other prohibited substances, traffic monitoring and the fight against cybercrime, are considered. The authors note that thanks to the storage of data in the blockchain, it becomes possible to increase the protection of the confidentiality of personal information, ensure transparency and efficiency of police work, as well as prevent fraud and corruption. The conclusion of the article emphasizes that the use of blockchain can improve the work of the police and ensure greater security of citizens. Distributed ledger technology, or blockchain as a service (BaaS) is indeed a relatively new product on the market that allows you to provide blockchain services for corporate clients. This solution allows you to use more reliable and secure methods of data processing and transaction management within the organization. All these economic effects can lead to a reduction in costs and an increase in the efficiency of the police. In general, the use of blockchain technology in the police can have a number of advantages, such as increasing transparency and accountability, reducing data processing time and combating data falsification. However, it is necessary to take into account some risks, such as the possibility of data privacy violations, as well as difficulties in integrating with existing systems and training personnel. In general, the introduction of blockchain technology into the police requires careful analysis and an approach that takes into account all aspects of the use of technology and its impact on the organization.

Ievgen Michurin

The article examines the peculiarities of a public contract on the Internet. This is a type of legal relationship in the digital environment. It has been proven that some of the contracts on the Internet are public. If contracts on the Internet contain signs of a public contract, the rules on a public contract apply to them. Currently, there is no comprehensive list of public contracts in the Civil Code of Ukraine. This allows the application of legal norms to public contracts on the Internet. This is facilitated by the dispositive nature of civil law norms. It was concluded that the Internet is only a form of legal relations that exist in civil law. These legal relations are property or personal non-property. They take place in a digital environment. The Internet is a kind of digital form of legal relations, among which there are civil ones. Peculiarities of smart contracts have been studied. Some of them are characterized by public contracts. For example, a contract on registration on an Internet platform is public. Here, one party is the consumer, who receives the rights granted by the Internet platform. The second party is an entrepreneur who owns the rights to the Internet platform. Some smart contracts are not public contracts. For example, those that are arranged inside the Internet platform. In particular, this is a contract for the sale of NFTs. It is proposed to supplement the Civil Code of Ukraine. It is necessary to add provisions on smart contracts to it. These norms should be contained in the general provisions of the contract. Internet platforms for the sale of goods can mediate in the settlement of the dispute. They contribute to establishing contact and dialogue between the parties. This contributes to the protection of consumer

В.Ю. Легенько

The article is devoted to the study of the current legal regulation of virtual assets in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China. The author analyses the advantages and disadvantages of the relevant legal framework, as well as the possibility and feasibility of implementing the most successful solutions into Ukrainian legislation. Due to the lack of in-depth studies that would combine the main regulatory norms and definitions and provide a general overview of this regulatory system, it became necessary to study in detail the current legal system of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China, which is characterised by high autonomy from the rest of the PRC, and to identify the institutions that perform the functions of a regulator of virtual assets. Next, the author provide a legislative definition of virtual assets and their classification. Unlike other jurisdictions, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the PRC focuses on the key features inherent in this particular object of civil rights, and excludes from the definition other objects that have similar features but are already regulated separately. The common law system makes it possible to regulate certain aspects of the circulation of virtual assets through precedents, which helps to quickly adapt to changes in this market, where new concepts and civil law relations emerge every few years. For example, it was through precedent that it was determined that cryptocurrencies are property and can therefore be the subject of a trust. Currently, not all objects created on the basis of blockchain technology are subject to regulation, such as non-fungible tokens or central bank digital currencies, as the possibility of their circulation is still being investigated by the Hong Kong Monetary Authority. The article also examines the new nuances of licensing service providers related to the circulation of virtual assets, which require dual licensing under two regimes regulated by separate legal acts. The author concludes that Hong Kong has managed to regulate the circulation of virtual assets in one way or another, but has not managed to create a clear system for all market participants, so it is possible to introduce some solutions into Ukrainian legislation, but in general, this legal regulation system has many disadvantages and sometimes creates legal uncertainty.

Shu Pan, Nurul Izzatul Lydia Binti Za’ba, M. Yaacob

Disputes in the construction industry occur from time to time. The development of the building information model enables the information in the process of project execution in the construction industry to be stored in the same model, which can find appropriate communication channels for disputes between different parties involved in engineering projects. As an emerging technology, Blockchain has received wide attention and is widely used in various fields because of its distributed storage, decentralization, and de-trust characteristics. Furthermore, smart contracts technology provides a new solution to the existing difficulties of disputes in the construction engineering industry from the perspective of replacing traditional contracts. Based on the research of Blockchain and smart contracts technology, this paper analyzes the feasibility of applying Blockchain and smart contracts to contracts management of the construction information model and discusses the implementation plan of combining Blockchain and contracts management of the construction information model with the actual scenario of material supply in the construction industry, choosing Ethereum blockchain platform as the underlying architecture and adopting " The development of smart contracts for construction material supply is carried out by adopting the "on-chain off-chain" data storage and business interaction method, and the specific design and implementation are carried out from the perspectives of system architecture, system deployment, contracts invocation mechanism, and contracts function.