Blockchain Papers

Thomas F Heston

Trust in climate data remains a significant barrier to effective climate action. Skepticism about data manipulation and politicization reduces confidence and hinders evidence-based policy. Existing climate data systems lack transparent verification and accessible analytical tools, limiting accountability and stakeholder engagement. This study presents a reproducible framework that applies blockchain technology to provide transparent verification, analysis, and governance of climate data. The architecture includes three layers: a data ingestion layer that standardizes verified observations, a blockchain layer that ensures immutability and provenance through proof-of-stake consensus, and a statistical analysis layer that uses deterministic methods for anomaly detection and trend evaluation. The framework was tested using 8,403 hours of temperature data from the Manila, Philippines monitoring station during 2024. Analysis identified 33 temperature anomalies ranging from 36.9 to 38.0 °C that aligned with documented April–May 2024 heat waves, confirming the ability to detect genuine meteorological extremes. Estimated transaction latency was 1–2 seconds per observation, with on-chain storage requirements of about 138 kilobytes and off-chain storage requirements of 2.1 megabytes for a 90-day deployment. Estimated energy use for the same period was approximately 0.06 kilowatt-hours, representing a 97–99 percent reduction compared with proof-of-work systems. These findings demonstrate that the proposed framework can securely record, verify, and analyze climate data while consuming very little energy. By combining blockchain immutability with transparent statistical methods, this approach directly addresses the trust deficit in climate science and provides a foundation for verifiable, reproducible, and efficient climate information systems.

John C. Moore, Marc Macias‐Fauria, Michael Wolovick

Key points • Academics, activists, and Arctic inhabitants are deeply concerned about cryosphere systems at imminent risk of collapse, and yet decades of "consequences-based" lobbying have failed to produce sufficient political will for deep decarbonization. • There are moral imperatives to search for tools that may help stabilise Arctic earth systems and to explore knowledge co-production and co-design with Arctic peoples to ensure both local and global benefits. • We propose a "compassionate harm reduction" paradigm, whereby climate scientists prioritise the well-being of humanity, and take responsibility to thoroughly understand any potential interventions that might minimise the harm from the consequences of climate change. A New Paradigm The prevailing "consequences-based paradigm" defines the role of climate scientists as informing the public about the negative effects of climate change, assuming this will mobilize political action to reduce emissions. Under this paradigm, research into strategies other than decarbonization is often seen as counterproductive, an argument advanced by Siegert et al. (2025) in their lead article, "Safeguarding the polar regions from dangerous geoengineering", in Frontiers in Science. Yet after half a century of alarm-raising, this paradigm has failed to generate the political will needed for deep decarbonization. This article presents insights from 27 academics, activists and Arctic inhabitants who propose an alternative: a "harm-reduction paradigm." We maintain that climate interventions research and decarbonization are not mutually exclusive. Instead of focusing solely on the problems, climate scientists should also explore all potential solutions to reduce harm to humanity. The effectiveness and risks of interventions remain uncertain, and only further research can address these questions – research that some, including Siegert et al. (2025) seek to halt. This perspective also carries implications for governance. Stewards of the Arctic Unlike Antarctica, the Arctic is more accessible, making it a more likely starting point for intervention field trials. It is not a Global Commons, and Arctic Peoples must be central to any decision-making. Preference from those in the mid-latitudes are secondary. The key question is how should decisions be made – through evidence or guesswork? Evidence includes both traditional knowledge and the scientific method, each of which has long produced valuable insights. Whether climate interventions make sense, pose risks, or are preferable to inaction remains unknown and cannot be determined without comprehensive research across legal, scientific, and technical domains. Pirita Näkkäläjärvi, President of the Sámi Parliament in Finland, states: "It is my personal opinion that we need to keep all options open and research climate interventions because of the risk of exceeding the goal of limiting global temperature rise to 1.5 degrees and the risk of crossing multiple climate tipping points" (Operaatio Arktis, 2023). Motivated by these concerns, the University of the Arctic has set up a review process for high latitude interventions (https://climateinterventions.org/), led by the Saami Council and incorporating both academic and traditional knowledge perspectives (Fig. 1). Gunn-Britt Retter, Head of the Arctic and Environmental Unit of the Saami Council, explains "The Saami Council acknowledges the need to face suggested intervention ideas and initiatives that are developed or are being developed. (...) It is our position that a rights-based perspective must be the foundation in any evaluation of intervention suggestions in relation to strengths and weaknesses and benefits and co-benefits.(...) Saami Council's participation in this project should not be interpreted as Saami Council's endorsement or support of the intervention suggestions assessed". Another core group interested in the future Arctic are the youth. Anni Pokela, strategic planner with Operaatio Arktis and a Gender Studies student at Helsinki University, asks: "Are we truly ready to accept the damage, the suffering that's unavoidable without climate intervention? Or are we going to give climate repair a chance?" In their lead article, Siegert et al. (2025) ask "why would a nation such as Greenland embrace a geoengineering solution to sea level rise" —since sea levels around Greenland's coasts are falling as the ice disappears. A good way to find out is to ask Greenlanders. Those of us that have readily identified several reasons for pursuing interventions research. For example, many Greenlanders have empathy and feel a sense of solidarity with low-income communities around the world who are already feeling the impacts of sea level rise. Furthermore, the ice itself is a global good which, if valued appropriately (Brown et al., 2021), would be highly rewarding for Greenland. Finally, declining sea levels impact Greenlanders, for instance through boat collisions with unmapped islets previously submerged. Challenges of Decarbonization There is near-universal agreement amongst scientists and policymakers that decarbonization is essential. The Earth is already at 1.5ºC above pre-industrial levels, and no climate intervention can work sustainably without rapid emissions cuts. Yet, glossing over the serious challenges involved is, at best, naive. Siegert et al. (2025) describe a scenario in which global temperature is stabilized at 0.9°C above preindustrial levels - a target long since past. While we agree that this "simple vision for Antarctica is appealing", it is also nearly impossible. Even in 2020, achieving net-zero required global investments in clean-energy and carbon-removal infrastructure exceeding $4 trillion annually by 2030 (IEA, 2021). With President Trump now actively reversing U.S. commitments to renewable energy, despite the U.S. being the world's largest historical emitter of greenhouse gasses, the likelihood of achieving rapid global decarbonization in time to meet climate goals is increasingly remote. Meanwhile, human activities continue to drive planetary warming – the most effective large-scale geoengineering experiment to date. Governance Moral hazard A widely touted argument against research into climate interventions, and used by Siegert et al. (2025), is that such research may reduce the likelihood of decarbonization. This is known as the "Mitigation Deterrence" or "Moral Hazard" argument. However, evidence is mixed: public attitudes show weak and variable support for this hazard, and there is equally strong evidence of the opposite effect (Reynolds 2014): that is, the idea of interventions can motivate people to take decarbonization more seriously. Furthermore, anticipating moral hazard may limit policymakers' options (Andrews et al., 2022). Support for intervention research is strongest among those suffering the worst climate impacts—especially in the Global South and among Indigenous Peoples (Sovacool et al., 2024). Motives and vested interests Opinion on geoengineering are often influenced by who funds the research and their motives. Who gains from Arctic intervention research? The fossil fuel and mineral extraction industries have clear interests in the Arctic, which holds an estimated 25% of global untapped gas reserves and 13% of oil, and large amounts of rare earth elements, such as 40% of global palladium (Borgerson, 2013). These resources become more accessible with reduced snow, ice cover or minimal sea ice, which also facilitates safer transport. Thus, resource extraction industries are unlikely to fund efforts to preserve the Arctic cryosphere intact, unless they are cynically assuming interventions will fail. Many institutions active in Arctic research, including the University of the Arctic and the University of Cambridge have published strong ethical statements rejecting support from such sources (University of Cambridge, 2023). The Precautionary Principle Environmental risks are often cited to oppose geoengineering research (e.g., Siegert et al., 2025). The Precautionary Approach has framed most environmental legislation over the last 30 years. Davis and Vinders (2025) examine how it might apply to geoengineering. In the case of intervention field trials, environmental risks are generally very small. However, perceived risk often includes concern over a "slippery slope" toward broader deployment. Davis and Vinders (2025) argue that political risk should be included when evaluating harms, but this assessment must consider both the risk of using an intervention and the risk of not using one – the "Moral Hazard of non-research." This latter risk is missing in both Siegert et al.'s review, and more broadly, such as in the EU advisory report (SAPEA, 2024). Risks of inaction include the socio-economic damages from crossing climate tipping points which are concentrated in the polar regions (Armstrong-McKay et al., 2022). Sticky slopes not slippery ones Does research inevitably lead to deployment – the so-called "slippery slope"? Not if research is ethically guided (e.g., AGU, 2024). There is a duty to report all findings, positive and negative, often required by funders. A roadmap to potential deployment involves many checkpoints along the way (e.g., Diamond et al., 2022). So far, the slope has proven "sticky," not slippery. For example, the Arctic Ice Project ceased sea ice albedo modification research due to toxicity concerns about hollow glass microspheres that they proposed using (https://srm360.org/news-reaction/arctic-ice-project-shuts-down/). Similarly, simulations suggest the retreat of the Sermeq Kujalleq (Jakobshavn Isbrae) glacier is unstoppable (Zhao et al., 2025). The Induction Fallacy Both decarbonization and climate interventions are extraordinarily challenging. Many intervention proposals will prove unworkable – due to feasibility, cost, timing, or being too risky. Whether this has already been demonstrated, as Siegert et al. (2025) claim, is debatable given how little research exists on most options (Fig. 1). Dismissing all climate interventions because some face serious challenges is a logical error, known as the Induction Fallacy. Siegert et al. examine only 5 of the 61 intervention ideas identified so far for the Arctic (https://climateinterventions.org), with more likely to emerge in future. Conversely, advocating a sole focus on carbon emissions reduction risks falling into "single action bias"; the tendency to favour one familiar solution while neglecting others that may also be necessary. Risk-risk assessment Any analysis of climate interventions must be framed as a risk-risk assessment, that is, comparing the risks and benefits of doing something versus doing nothing. Neither the present nor a past climate state can serve as a viable baseline; we must compare against plausible future scenarios. While research is still at an early stage for many intervention ideas, the literature on Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI) is relatively mature. It generally finds that projected impacts under SAI are less severe, and crucially more equitable, than those under future greenhouse gas climate scenarios. Supporting references (see supplementary material) point to economic benefits, an overwhelmingly positive cryospheric response, and net human health gains from reduced temperatures that outweigh risks from air pollution and from ozone depletion by a factor of 13 (Harding et al). Conclusions While scientific and public support for climate action is strong (Leiserowitz et al., 2023), the political will for large-scale emissions reductions remains insufficient. Siegert et al. (2025) frequently cite fossil fuel-funded opposition as a key barrier. While such interests have obstructed other major societal and economic changes in the past (e.g., workers' rights, environmental regulations), those changes still occurred. Hence, lack of climate action is likely not solely due to fossil fuel-funded opposition but to fossil fuels being integral to modern lifestyles (e.g., Lemaire, 2025). We argue that the "consequences-based paradigm" – the belief that warning the public will generate political action – has failed. After decades of warnings, emissions remain high. Worse, fear-based messaging may even boost support for right-wing parties (e.g., Nguyen et al., 2022), which typically oppose climate action. By contrast, research into climate interventions could offer much-needed optimism and agency. Our "harm-reduction paradigm" suggests that such research may strengthen public confidence in our ability to meet climate challenges, thereby fostering solidarity, expanding empathy, and ultimately increasing political support for decarbonization. Of course, we could be wrong. And even if we are right that climate interventions research boosts support for decarbonization, that does not necessarily mean interventions themselves are good ideas. Only more research can answer that. Yet, Siegert et al. (2025) claim that "further research into these techniques would not be an effective use of limited time and resources". Arguing to shut down an entire field of scientific research is an extraordinary claim, and requires extraordinary proof. Pointing to specific problems in individual techniques, as Siegert et al. do, is not sufficient. Further research may resolve those problems. The only potentially valid argument against all interventions research is political: that it might reduce motivation to decarbonize. But even setting aside the ethical concern of suppressing science for political reasons, this argument is unproven. It rests entirely on the same "consequences-based paradigm" of climate outreach. It is fair to say that the "consequences-based paradigm" has, after half a century, failed to deliver. Perhaps, it is time that we try compassionate harm reduction instead. Formal Analysis Yes Yes Yes Funding acquisition N/A N/A N/A Investigation Yes Yes Yes Methodology Yes Yes Yes Project administration Yes No No Resources N/A N/A N/A Software N/A N/A N/A Supervision N/A N/A N/A Validation N/A N/A N/A Visualization Yes No No Figure legend Figure 1. The methodology adopted by University of the Arctic for an evaluation of intervention ideas. The Saami Council are leading the indigenous knowledge stream but are engaging with other indigenous groups in the Arctic Council. Meetings include three distinct groups: traditional knowledge holders, indigenous politicians, and indigenous experts. The meetings are in a variety of formats, including formalized workshops, town hall and council meetings in addition to awareness raising and general capacity building.

Yuming Huang, Xiangyu Li, Yuehan Wu, Chaoyang Xue · 14 authors

Abstract Tracing sources and assessing intervention effectiveness are crucial for controlling atmospheric particulate matter (PM) pollution. Isotopic techniques enable precise top-down tracing, but the absence of long-term, global-scale multi-compound isotopic data limits comprehensive analysis. Here, we establish a blockchain-based isotopic database, compiling 34,815 isotopic fingerprints of global PM and its emissions from 1,890 pollution events across 66 countries. This allows retrospective analysis and predictions, revealing that PM sources are distinct, dynamically changing over time, and often asynchronous with interventions. Additionally, we estimate source contributions to PM 2.5 and its compounds, highlighting the increasing impact of biomass burning. Furthermore, projections indicate that by 2100, PM levels may decline to 5.38 ± 0.16 μg/m³ in the Americas and 13.9 ± 1.82 μg/m³ in Asia under climate mitigation scenarios but will still exceed WHO guidelines without further controls on natural emissions. Guiding future interventions with isotopic big data is essential for addressing air pollution challenges.

Murray A. Rudd, Matthew Jones, Daniel Sechrest, Daniel Batten · 5 authors

• Novel model links landfills with Bitcoin mining to enhance economic viability. • Bitcoin mining can help finance methane mitigation from low-flow landfills. • Integrative approach monetizes methane destruction. • Strategic use of bitcoin mining may help incentivize rapid scaling of mitigation.

Jawad Abbas, Joanna Kurowska‐Pysz, Şerife Zihni Eyüpoğlu, Wei Liu

Geological JournalVolume 58, Issue 9 p. 3247-3249 SPECIAL ISSUE ARTICLE Nexus of geoenvironment, resource management and regional sustainable development: Introduction Jawad Abbas, Corresponding Author Jawad Abbas [email protected] Faculty of Management Sciences, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan Correspondence Jawad Abbas, Faculty of Management Sciences, University of Central Punjab, Pakistan. Email: [email protected]Search for more papers by this authorJoanna Kurowska-Pysz, Joanna Kurowska-Pysz Department of Management, WSB University, Dąbrowa Górnicza, PolandSearch for more papers by this authorSerife Zihni Eyupoglu, Serife Zihni Eyupoglu Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Near East University, Nicosia, TRNC, TurkeySearch for more papers by this authorWei Liu, Wei Liu College of Business Administration, Qingdao University, Qingdao, ChinaSearch for more papers by this author Jawad Abbas, Corresponding Author Jawad Abbas [email protected] Faculty of Management Sciences, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan Correspondence Jawad Abbas, Faculty of Management Sciences, University of Central Punjab, Pakistan. Email: [email protected]Search for more papers by this authorJoanna Kurowska-Pysz, Joanna Kurowska-Pysz Department of Management, WSB University, Dąbrowa Górnicza, PolandSearch for more papers by this authorSerife Zihni Eyupoglu, Serife Zihni Eyupoglu Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Near East University, Nicosia, TRNC, TurkeySearch for more papers by this authorWei Liu, Wei Liu College of Business Administration, Qingdao University, Qingdao, ChinaSearch for more papers by this author First published: 03 September 2023 https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.4852 Handling Editor: Ian Somerville Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. 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ChihYun Chuang, TingFang Lee

On the Ethereum network, it is challenging to determine a gas price that ensures a transaction will be included in a block within a user's required timeline without overpaying. One way of addressing this problem is through the use of gas price oracles that utilize historical block data to recommend gas prices. However, when transaction volumes increase rapidly, these oracles often underestimate or overestimate the price. In this paper, we demonstrate how Gaussian process models can predict the distribution of the minimum price in an upcoming block when transaction volumes are increasing. This is effective because these processes account for time correlations between blocks. We performed an empirical analysis using the Gaussian process model on historical block data and compared the performance with GasStation-Express and Geth gas price oracles. The results suggest that when transactions volumes fluctuate greatly, the Gaussian process model offers a better estimation. Further, we demonstrated that GasStation-Express and Geth can be improved upon by using a smaller training sample size which is properly pre-processed. Based on the results of empirical analysis, we recommended a gas price oracle made up of a hybrid model consisting of both the Gaussian process and GasStation-Express. This oracle provides efficiency, accuracy, and better cost.

David Carl, Christian Ewerhart

For users of the Ethereum network, the gas price is a crucial parameter that determines how swiftly the decentralized consensus protocol confirms a transaction. This paper studies the statistics of the Ethereum gas price. We start with some conceptual discussion of the gas price notion in view of the actual transaction-selection strategies used by Ethereum miners. Subsequently, we provide the descriptive statistics of what we call the threshold gas price. Finally, we identify and estimate a seasonal ARIMA (SARIMA) model for predicting the hourly median of the threshold gas price.

Sam M. Werner, Paul J. Pritz, Daniel Pérez

In the Ethereum network, miners are incentivized to include transactions in a block depending on the gas price specified by the sender. The sender of a transaction therefore faces a trade-off between timely inclusion and cost of his transaction. Existing recommendation mechanisms aggregate recent gas price data on a per-block basis to suggest a gas price. We perform an empirical analysis of historic block data to motivate the use of a predictive model for gas price recommendation. Subsequently, we propose a novel mechanism that combines a deep-learning based price forecasting model as well as an algorithm parameterized by a user-specific urgency value to recommend gas prices. In a comprehensive evaluation on real-world data, we show that our approach results on average in costs savings of more than 50% while only incurring an inclusion delay of 1.3 blocks, when compared to the gas price recommendation mechanism of the most widely used Ethereum client.

Charlotte Pascoe, Gerry M Devine

PIMMS (Portable Infrastructure for the Metafor Metadata System) provides institutions with tools to capture information about the workflow of running simulations from the design of experiments to the implementation of experiments via simulations running models. PIMMS uses the Metafor methodology for simulation documentation which consists of a common information model (CIM), a set of controlled vocabularies (CV) and software tools. PIMMS software tools provide for the creation and consumption of CIM content via a web infrastructure and portal.PIMMS will refactor the "CMIP5 questionnaire" metadata management tool, that is collecting climate model metadata for the CMIP5 model inter-comparison project, so that it can be more easily portable into stand alone installations within the university environment and customised to address the specific requirements of individual research groups. Initial model descriptions may take time to complete but once they have been cre ated the PIMMS infrastructure can be used to document subsequent variations by describing only those elements that are changed. An established PIMMS infrastructure will fit seamlessly into the research metadata workflow and significantly reduce subsequent documentation effort. The key to the customisation of PIMMS is in the modularity of its tools and the clear separation of structure (CIM) from content (CV). The PIMMS project will extend the CMIP5 controlled vocabulary to encompass descriptions of paleoclimate models and will also demonstrate how the CIM can be used to document an Integrated Assessment Model (IAM). This proof of concept prototype will create a new controlled vocabulary in collaboration with Ermitage and use it to reconfigure PIMMS to collect metadata in a different discipline. PIMMS will further explore how the CV that is used to configure PIMMS may be of further use to our stake holders and the wider JISC community through the development of the Uni versity of Cambridge chemicaltagger tool. PIMMS will provide a local portal so that research groups can view and search their own content, as well as publish their metadata content to institutional, national and international services. In addition PIMMS will also include data node software so that data documented with PIMMS can also be published to the web, both locally, and to national and international services.