Double-entry bookkeeping ensures internal balance but offers limited independent evidence that reported state follows from complete, unaltered records under a stated accounting policy. Ian Grigg's operational triple-entry model—cryptographically linked inter-firm receipts—and subsequent advances in hash commitments, zero-knowledge proofs, and payment-layer compliance attestations motivate ledger-native assurance: verification artifacts produced during accounting close, not assembled from exports afterward. This working paper presents a design-science framework with four assurance layers (source, posting, record, disclosure); a taxonomy of source-anchoring paths including on-chain settlement, TLS-attested ingestion, and bilateral finalization; an analysis of payment-layer versus ledger-layer zero-knowledge statements; and a close-cadence model distinguishing continuous, partial, and batch close under different capture postures. We state explicit scope limits aligned with audit evidence theory and outline an empirical and regulatory research agenda.
The rapid growth of entities that hold, trade and earn revenue from crypto-assets has outpaced the development of auditing guidance tailored to this environment. Digital assets have moved decisively from the margins of finance into the balance sheets of regulated funds, market makers, fintechs and conventional corporates, with the global crypto-asset market now measured in the trillions of dollars. Auditors are now routinely asked to express opinions on financial statements that include digital assets, yet the established toolkit of external confirmations, period-end cutoff procedures and observable market prices maps poorly onto blockchain-based holdings and continuous, automated trading. This paper sets out, from a practitioner's standpoint, the principal challenges encountered when auditing crypto-holding and trading entities: establishing the existence and ownership of on-chain assets; obtaining assurance over the completeness of an entity's wallet population; valuing illiquid tokens, liquidity-pool positions, non-fungible tokens and stablecoins; auditing emerging instruments such as token loan agreements, warrants and forfeitures; addressing cutoff in markets that never close; and testing revenue arising from market-making, arbitrage and staking. For each area, the paper describes how the profession currently adapts existing standards-notably ISA 500, ISA 501, ISA 540 (Revised), ISA 240, IFRS 13 and the recently effective FASB ASC 350-60-and where meaningful gaps remain. The paper argues that strengthening audit practice in this domain is not a narrow technical concern but a matter of investor protection and financial-system integrity, given the scale of value now held in digital form and the heightened fraud and money-laundering risks that accompany it. It concludes with practical considerations for auditors and a call for more specific standard-setting and practitioner guidance.
The accounting for cryptoassets under current IFRS remains fragmented. Following the IFRS Interpretations Committee's 2019 agenda decision on holdings of cryptocurrencies, most holders default to IAS 38 Intangible Assets unless IAS 2 Inventories applies. That outcome produces incomplete comparability, weak performance reporting, and a recurring tension between the economic liquidity of many cryptoassets and the accounting model applied to them. This discussion paper proposes a narrow holder-side framework for fungible cryptoassets that do not provide the holder with an enforceable claim on an issuer, measured subsequently at fair value through profit or loss, with business model affecting presentation and disclosures rather than measurement. The analysis also addresses matters commonly omitted in early crypto accounting proposals: counterpart entries for acquisition, use, rewards and disposal; liability-side consequences arising from taxes, slashing, safeguarding, financing and legal obligations; interaction with IFRS 13, IAS 12, IAS 37 and IFRS 7; and practical illustrations across treasury entities, funds, exchanges, validators, Web3 operators and payment platforms. Public-company reporting examples are incorporated as illustrative evidence of how existing accounting frameworks affect balance-sheet presentation, profit or loss, deferred taxes and scope boundaries in practice.
The accounting for cryptoassets under current IFRS remains fragmented. Following the IFRS Interpretations Committee's 2019 agenda decision on holdings of cryptocurrencies, most holders default to IAS 38 Intangible Assets unless IAS 2 Inventories applies. That outcome produces incomplete comparability, weak performance reporting, and a recurring tension between the economic liquidity of many cryptoassets and the accounting model applied to them. This discussion paper proposes a narrow holder-side framework for fungible cryptoassets that do not provide the holder with an enforceable claim on an issuer, measured subsequently at fair value through profit or loss, with business model affecting presentation and disclosures rather than measurement. The analysis also addresses matters commonly omitted in early crypto accounting proposals: counterpart entries for acquisition, use, rewards and disposal; liability-side consequences arising from taxes, slashing, safeguarding, financing and legal obligations; interaction with IFRS 13, IAS 12, IAS 37 and IFRS 7; and practical illustrations across treasury entities, funds, exchanges, validators, Web3 operators and payment platforms. Public-company reporting examples are incorporated as illustrative evidence of how existing accounting frameworks affect balance-sheet presentation, profit or loss, deferred taxes and scope boundaries in practice.
Strengthening the economy through transformation in the tax system and decreasing the role of auditors and auditor-centric approaches should be among the priorities of the Iranian National Tax Administration.Given the country's urgent need to increase revenue sources to compensate for budget deficits, improving the tax collection system becomes even more crucial.According to clause (b) of article (1) of the "Law on Sales Terminals and Taxpayer Systems," blockchain technology can also be considered a type of sales terminal.One of the key features of blockchain is the enhancement of security, transparency, and efficiency.This study aimed to consider reality as closely as possible.For data collection, a library research method has been employed.It appears that a private consortium blockchain is a suitable option for the tax system.Based on the conducted reviews, there is still no definitive consensus mechanism for a tax system.Therefore, the proposed approach in this study is the use of a hybrid consensus mechanism, combining proof-of-authority and delegated proof-of-stake, which would be ideal for a blockchain-based tax system.One of the main features of this model is the use of multi-layered validation.A blockchain-based tax system designed to record all transactions and events related to invoice-based taxes should fundamentally be established on a multi-party smart contract between the buyer, seller, tax authorities of the origin and destination, the buyer's bank, and the seller's bank.To ensure the successful implementation of blockchain, several key considerations must be taken into account.
The study focuses on the degree of correlation between the MACD histogram and the closing price of bitcoin on a weekly timeframe, which is an important factor in the formation of traders' forecasts within the framework of technical analysis. The main objectives of the study were to find out whether the minimum price of bitcoin increased or decreased compared to the previous week with similar changes in the MACD, as well as to determine the average and maximum series for the weekly closing price. The study found that in 54.45% of cases, a trader can expect the closing price of bitcoin to increase this week if the MACD histogram showed an increase in the previous week; or to decrease this week if the MACD histogram showed a decrease in the previous week. A trader can expect the closing price of bitcoin to continue its direction of movement in the second week 48.02% of the time. A trader can expect the closing price movement in one direction to end after the 4th week 95.48% of the time.
Every year, the cryptocurrency is more active in the global financial market, offering users more convenient and cheaper terms of payment. In addition, it allows you to receive financial income, makes it more and more competitive in the electronic money market. Over the past decade, it is cryptocurrency that has provided the largest 463 increase in the value of assets and the number of services for the population and business. Accordingly, both accounting and auditing are obliged to meet the challenges of the modern economy. The use of cryptocurrency primarily influences the choice of audit procedures. Since, along with traditional audit procedures, it is important to apply new methods to reduce the risks of inaccurate currency valuation and identify possible fraud. The procedures, along with the validation of reporting figures, should ensure that the business is held accountable to the public for the veracity of transactions. While this is more like cybersecurity, its assessment should also be a major part of the expert audit process. Our study summarized the theory and practice of auditing cryptocurrencytransactions, analyzed the main procedures and proposed our own audit sequence in accordance with the International Standards for Quality Control, Auditing, Reviews, and other assignments. Auditors do not assess the state of cybersecurity, however, they use information, the veracity of which is associated with the risks of unauthorized access to IT systems and data. Therefore, for a cryptocurrency, the state and assessment of the IT system of an enterprise has a direct impact on the indicators of financial statements.
This study focuses on the analysis and identification of specific functions and advantages of a new phenomenon in the Russian market of educational services the regional supporting university It is proved that the latter is the result of evolutionary actions on consolidating the existing regional organizations provided by the relevant program federal documents The authors recognize the adaptive system of corporate financial management as an objective basis for the effective functioning of the regional supporting university It is established that such a system should be able to carry out the integrated planning accounting analysis management and monitoring of the financial status of the university in order to maximize its profitability and achieve an acceptable level of risk and liquidity Realizing the function of regional multifaceted innovative development the supporting university claims the concentration of substantial budgetary sources On the other hand based on the example of a specific subject implementing a new model of organization the authors note the importance of the reproduction of decentralized equity finances and the attraction of the resources of foundations and development institutions of the federal level on a competitive basis The authors do not exclude the supplementation of the financing sources of the supporting university by the resources of credit infrastructure private investors as well as regional and local budgets