In recent years, cloud marketplaces have emerged as dominant platforms for cloud service procurement. These marketplaces, led by major providers such as Azure, Amazon Web Services, and Google Cloud, feature services exclusively available on their own platforms, introducing limitations for end users. This paper explores the convergence of cloud computing, blockchain, and semantics, envisioning a marketplace where cloud providers can offer their cloud services and cloud consumers can efficiently discover, procure, and potentially resell these services. Semantic representations streamline service discovery and composition, enhancing interoperability. Blockchain technology and non-fungible tokens play pivotal roles in establishing a fully decentralized marketplace characterized by data verification and immutability. This enables autonomous contract validation and execution between cloud consumers and cloud providers, reducing reliance on intermediaries. This innovative fusion promises to reshape the landscape of cloud service procurement, making it more transparent and independent.
The rapid digitization of the healthcare sector has led to the generation of massive volumes of Electronic Health Records (EHRs), necessitating a robust, secure, and scalable system capable of efficiently managing and accessing this ever-growing data. Ensuring privacy, security, and scalability in managing voluminous and sensitive healthcare data, particularly when stored across various geographical locations, poses critical challenges that require innovative solutions. To address these issues, MeDiStore, a decentralized framework built on the Ethereum blockchain, is proposed. By integrating the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS), MeDiStore ensures scalable and secure storage while mitigating centralization risks and providing improved accessibility for EHRs. The framework leverages Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) to encrypt and secure patient records, ensuring data ownership remains with the patient. To further enhance scalability, security, and reliability, of the blockchain network, the MeDiStore Trust Protocol, introduced a modified Proof of Stake (PoS) consensus mechanism that evaluates validators based on their network stake and reputation score, derived from their historical performance. Additionally, a Data Translation Layer is incorporated to ensure interoperability by converting EHRs into Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR) or Health Level 7 (HL7) systems without compromising security. Performance evaluation across 200 consensus rounds highlights metrics such as smart contract execution time, average IPFS file upload time, and reputation score behavior of validators. A comprehensive security analysis simulates Sybil attack scenarios, demonstrating the system's resilience through reputation-based validator selection. By integrating these factors, MeDiStore offers a scalable, secure, privacy-preserving, and interoperable solution tailored for efficient EHR management in the healthcare domain.
The exponential growth in digital healthcare infrastructure has resulted in an overwhelming increase in sensitive medical data generation. However, traditional centralized Electronic Medical Records (EMR) systems continue to face critical security and privacy challenges. These include single points of failure, limited interoperability, data tampering, and unauthorized access. This paper introduces a robust and scalable blockchain-based framework for secure EMR management. Leveraging Ethereum blockchain, IPFS decentralized storage, and smart contracts, the framework ensures tamper-proof data logging and fine-grained access control. The system stores encrypted patient health records on IPFS and logs the corresponding content identifier (CID) on the Ethereum blockchain, eliminating the risk of data exposure. The architecture is designed for future compatibility with Mobile Edge Computing (MEC), allowing for faster data processing closer to the point of care. By offering immutable audit trails, decentralized access governance, and high availability, the proposed framework ensures transparency, security, and data ownership for all healthcare stakeholders.
Health-care is undergoing a considerable digital shift in the present state, which is driven by the rise of new technologies and the changes taking place globally. The movement is rebalancing the provision and availability of health care, at the same time that it highlights the importance of protecting confidential information about patients. Coupled with the cryptographic primitives, blockchain technology provides a formidable answer, as it promises to improve data integrity using decentralized processes. In this paper, a hybrid blockchain-based EHR management and security solution to Electronic Health Records (EHRs) is described. Having considered the drawbacks of the blockchain in its ability to work with large files the system is connected with Ethereum blockchain through Ganache and program construction tools is equipped with the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS). In the hybrid model, one does store each row hash (unique identifier) of the patients records on the blockchain, but one does not store the actual data on the blockchain, instead on IPFS. A Decentralized Application (DApp) built on the programing language of Ethereum, Solidity, and the web3.js interface also allows secure data access via cryptocurrency wallets like MetaMask. The use of smart contracts is deployed to process transactions to achieve transparency and verifiability. To enhance security the Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA) is adapted to provide unauthorised access. Results of simulation reveal that a suggested method is reliable in providing patient data security, maintain immutability, and secure exchange of data. The approach promotes transparency within the digital health-care systems and strengthens the stakeholder belief by allowing a decentralised structure of these systems.
Blockchain technology has emerged as a promising solution for improving traceability across global supply chains, offering tamper-proof records and increased transparency.However, concerns related to data privacy, confidentiality, and interoperability continue to hinder widespread adoption.This paper proposes a comprehensive framework addressing these key challenges by combining privacy-preserving techniques-such as permissioned ledgers, zero-knowledge proofs, and verifiable credentials-with industry-driven data standards (GS1 EPCIS, W3C Verifiable Credentials).We first review the landscape of blockchain traceability solutions and outline critical requirements from regulatory and operational perspectives.Next, we detail our proposed privacy-preserving and interoperable architecture, incorporating off-chain storage, role-based permissions, and selective disclosure mechanisms to accommodate the diverse needs of modern supply chains.We illustrate these concepts through a high-level system design, accompanied by implementation considerations.Our evaluation highlights that successful adoption depends on carefully balancing transparency and confidentiality, supplemented by robust governance structures and standard APIs.The paper concludes by discussing future directions for blockchain traceability, emphasizing scalability, user-centric design, and cross-chain interoperability as critical enablers of a global, privacypreserving supply chain ecosystem.
This research explores the distributed database security storage and access control scheme based on IPFS and blockchain for the privacy issues such as sensitive data leakage and account security under the rapid development of Internet technology. The research background focuses on the contradictory status quo of data value enhancement and black-market data trading in the fields of intelligent medical care and unmanned driving, etc. Although the existing database security technology has made progress in encryption algorithms, dynamic protection, etc., it is still faced with the challenges of performance bottleneck and fine-grained access control of centralized architecture. The research aims to integrate the advantages of IPFS distributed storage and the tamper-proof characteristics of blockchain to construct a new type of secure storage system. Through theoretical analysis of IPFS peer-to-peer file system architecture, blockchain six-layer model (data layer, network layer, consensus layer, etc.) and AES/SM4 encryption algorithms, a system solution integrating blockchain smart contract and IPFS storage is designed: SM4 encrypts the original data and then stores it in IPFS, and achieves traceability through the blockchain record hash, and introduces the proxy re-encryption based on the identity technology to Realize dynamic access control. Experiments comparing the performance of MongoDB and IPFS show that in 5000 transactions, the delay of IPFS mode 12 nodes is reduced by 1.71 times compared with 6 nodes, which is significantly better than that of MongoDB's by 1.22 times; in the throughput test, IPFS increases linearly with the increase of nodes, while MongoDB decreases after the peak value. The study confirms that the combination of IPFS and blockchain can effectively reduce transaction latency by 31%, improve throughput by 30%, and safeguard the security of the whole data lifecycle through cryptographic technology. The results provide a decentralized security framework for distributed databases, with both theoretical innovation and engineering application value, which is of great practical significance for highly sensitive data fields such as healthcare and finance.
Emanuela Podda, Pol Hölzmer, Alexandre Amard, Johannes Sedlmeir · 5 authors
Zero-knowledge proofs allow the implementation of the data minimisation principle imposed by the GDPR in digital identity wallets and the related personal data transactions, therefore representing a reasonable option to be enforced by lawmakers.
Blockchain provides the opportunity for organizations to execute trustable collaborations through smart contract automations. However, linkability problems exist in blockchain-based collaboration platforms due to privacy leakages, which, when exploited, will result in tracing transaction patterns to users and exposing collaborating organizations and parties. Some privacy-preserving mechanisms have been adopted to reduce linkability problems through the integration of access control systems to smart contracts, off-chain data storage, usage of permissioned blockchain, etc. Still, linkability problems persist in applications deployed in both private and public blockchain networks. Zero-knowledge proof (ZKP) systems provide mechanisms for verifying the correctness of transactions and actions executed on the blockchain without revealing complete information about the transaction. Hence, ZKP systems provide a potential solution to eliminating linkability problems in blockchain-based collaboration systems. The objective of this paper is to identify various linkability problems that exist in blockchain-enabled collaboration systems and understand how ZKP algorithms and smart contract frameworks can be used in addressing the linkability problems. Furthermore, a proof of concept (PoC) is implemented and simulated to demonstrate a ZKP system for a privacy-preserving feedback mechanism that mitigates linkability problems in collaboration systems. The scenario-based results from the PoC evaluation show that a feedback system that includes project participants’ verification through membership proofs, verification of on-time submission of feedback through range proofs, and encrypted calculation of feedback scores through homomorphic arithmetic provides a privacy-aware system for executing collaborations on the blockchain without linking project participants.
Sohel Rana, Rizal Mohd Nor, Mohammad Enayet Hossain, Md Amiruzzaman
The increasing adoption of cryptocurrency has underscored the critical need for robust security measures to protect digital assets stored in cryptocurrency wallets. Traditional security approaches have often proven inadequate in addressing the rapidly evolving threats in the digital landscape. In response, cloud-based security solutions have emerged as a promising method to enhance wallet protection, leveraging scalability, flexibility, and advanced security features. This study investigates the security challenges faced by cryptocurrency wallets and explores the potential of cloud-based solutions, focusing on multi-factor authentication, encryption protocols, real-time monitoring, and secure backup and recovery. The research assesses the effectiveness of these solutions in mitigating risks such as unauthorized access, data breaches, and digital asset theft. Findings reveal that cloud-based security solutions significantly improve protection by offering scalable, adaptable frameworks. However, challenges remain, including privacy concerns, regulatory compliance, and the cost of implementation. The research introduces a cost-efficient approach that integrates cloud-based technologies to optimize the total cost of ownership while maintaining robust security. This study also discusses the regulatory and privacy implications of cloud security in cryptocurrency ecosystems. In conclusion, this research provides novel insights into the integration of cloud-based security solutions, offering a comprehensive framework for safeguarding digital assets in cryptocurrency wallets. It contributes to the growing body of knowledge on the feasibility and impact of cloud technologies in enhancing the security of cryptocurrency systems.
Yao Ma, Wen Yu Kon, J. O. Chu, Kevin Han Yong Loh · 6 authors
Identity verification is the process of confirming an individual's claimed identity, which is essential in sectors like finance, healthcare, and online services to ensure security and prevent fraud. However, current password/PIN-based identity solutions are susceptible to phishing or skimming attacks, where malicious intermediaries attempt to steal credentials using fake identification portals. Alikhani et al. [Nature, 2021] began exploring identity verification through graph coloring-based relativistic zero-knowledge proofs (RZKPs), a key cryptographic primitive that enables a prover to demonstrate knowledge of secret credentials to a verifier without disclosing any information about the secret. Our work advances this field and addresses unresolved issues: From an engineering perspective, we relax further the relativistic constraints from 60m to 30m, and significantly enhance the stability and scalability of the experimental demonstration of the 2-prover graph coloring-based RZKP protocol for near-term use cases. At the same time, for long-term security against entangled malicious provers, we propose a modified protocol with comparable computation and communication costs, we establish an upper bound on the soundness parameter for this modified protocol. On the other hand, we extend the two-prover, two-verifier setup to a three-prover configuration, demonstrating the security of such relativistic protocols against entangled malicious provers.
The cryptographic protocol developments are transforming digital trust is the capacity to verify without revealing any underlying information. Traditional authentication and authorization systems are usually prone to leakage of sensitive data, resulting in compromise of privacy and low scalability in distributed systems. The root of these problems is eliminated through the so-called zero-knowledge techniques that allow demonstrating to one party ownership of some information without exposing it. This paper explores the origin and development of zero-knowledge protocols in light of its efficiency, trustless design, and privacy focus to illustrate why the application is worth the hype. Particular attention is paid to such structures as zk-SNARKs, zk-STARKs, and bulletproofs, as well as their application to constructing transparent, scalable systems. Blockchain aptitudes used anywhere in confidentiality of transactions, decentralized identity systems allow a self-sovereign identity without exaggerating personal information, and the healthcare and finance industries enjoy the ability to share information securely without any effect on compliance aspects. The next discussion points are implementations, the scalability issue, cryptographic assumptions, and integration issues. This survey outlines evaluations of deployments from 2021 to 2025 to determine the following top benefits, barriers, and trends in building systems that safeguard privacy without compromising their performance or trust to the client. Future requirement conclusions provide some insights about future requirements in terms of efficient construction of proofs, standardizations, and ease of usability to expand the adoption of infrastructures built on zero-knowledge into a constantly more integrated digital world.
This study proposes a secure authentication framework based on Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) for enterprise microservices in big data environments.The objective was to overcome the limitations of traditional mechanisms such as JSON Web Tokens (JWTs), which lack built-in traceability, revocation, and protection against session-based attacks.Developed as a conceptual system design project, the framework was simulated using a custom private blockchain built in Go (Golang).NFTs were minted and transferred through smart contracts to act as temporary, verifiable access tokens.A custom hardware wallet, built on the ESP32-S3 microcontroller and programmed using the Arduino framework, was used to establish a physical barrier between the user and the system.This approach ensured that token ownership remained tamper-resistant and device-bound, ensuring that it remained secure.No human subjects were involved in this study; instead, the system was evaluated through functional test scenarios to assess authentication flow, session control, and token lifecycle management.Tools such as Docker and Redis were used to support simulation and deployment.Results indicated that the NFT-based system demonstrated improved resistance to token hijacking, session fixation, and replay attacks compared to JWT-based alternatives.Unlike conventional systems, it does not rely on static credentials and allows token revocation via on-chain burning and session-bound control.The study recommends future validation in real-world enterprise settings to assess scalability, fault tolerance, and real-time integration.The proposed framework offers a pathway toward decentralised, privacy-preserving authentication solutions suitable for secure and distributed environments.
Aufa Nasywa Rahman, Bimo Sunarfri Hantono, Guntur Dharma Putra
Open banking framework enables third party providers to access financial data across banking institutions, leading to unprecedented innovations in the financial sector. However, some open banking standards remain susceptible to severe technological risks, including unverified data sources, inconsistent data integrity, and lack of immutability. In this paper, we propose a layered architecture that provides assurance in data trustworthiness with three distinct levels of trust, covering source validation, data-level authentication, and tamper-proof storage. The first layer guarantees the source legitimacy using decentralized identity and verifiable presentation, while the second layer verifies data authenticity and consistency using cryptographic signing. Lastly, the third layer guarantees data immutability through the Tangle, a directed acyclic graph distributed ledger. We implemented a proof-of-concept implementation of our solution to evaluate its performance, where the results demonstrate that the system scales linearly with a stable throughput, exhibits a 100% validation rate, and utilizes under 35% of CPU and 350 MiB memory. Compared to a real-world open banking implementation, our solution offers significantly reduced latency and stronger data integrity assurance. Overall, our solution offers a practical and efficient system for secure data sharing in financial ecosystems while maintaining regulatory compliance.
The emergence of blockchain technology has revolutionized decentralized data management by offering robust alternatives to traditional centralized database systems. This paper provides a systematic and comprehensive review of blockchain-based distributed databases, highlighting key architectural transformations, core enabling technologies such as Merkle Trees, PBFT, and Zero-Knowledge Proofs, and comparing them with conventional distributed databases. Real-world implementations including Hyperledger Fabric, BigchainDB, and OrbitDB are analyzed to assess their scalability, interoperability, and security capabilities. The paper also explores intrinsic security mechanisms, performance bottlenecks, and regulatory challenges that affect adoption. Finally, it identifies open research questions and future directions necessary for building scalable, privacy-aware, and interoperable decentralized database ecosystems suitable for enterprise and multi-stakeholder environments. Keywords— Blockchain databases, consensus mechanisms, data integrity, decentralized systems, distributed ledger, Merkle trees, Zero-Knowledge Proofs
Juan Cano-Benito, Andrea Cimmino, Sven Hertling, Heiko Paulheim · 5 authors
Data spaces are emerging as decentralised infrastructures that enable sovereign, secure, and trustworthy data exchange among multiple participants. To achieve semantic interoperability within these environments, the use of semantic web technologies and knowledge graphs has been proposed. Although distributed ledger technologies (DLT) fit as the underlying infrastructure for data spaces, there remains a significant gap in terms of the efficient storage of semantic data on these platforms. This paper presents a systematic evaluation of semantic data storage across different types of DLT (public, private, and hybrid), using a real-world knowledge graph as an experimental basis. The study compares performance, storage efficiency, resource consumption, and the capabilities to update and query semantic data. The results show that private DLTs are the most efficient for storing and managing semantic content, while hybrid DLTs offer a balanced trade-off between public auditability and operational efficiency. This research leads to a discussion on the selection of the most appropriate DLT infrastructure based on the data sovereignty requirements of decentralised data ecosystems.
Blockchain technology, renowned for its decentralized and secure nature, has gained substantial attention. Central to its functionality are consensus mechanisms, which are essential for validating transactions and upholding the integrity of the distributed ledger. However, the efficiency and scalability of blockchain are currently impeded by the resource limitations and excessive communication demands of existing consensus mechanisms. To address these challenges, we propose GT-BFT, a streamlined and lightweight blockchain consensus mechanism grounded in a global trust model. This model capitalizes on node behavior to form consensus groups and facilitate consensus achievement. GT-BFT integrates a novel approach of selective broadcasting along with a Byzantine threshold determination algorithm, significantly boosting both the efficiency and security of the network. Our extensive analysis and performance evaluation reveal that GT-BFT surpasses existing mechanisms in key areas such as security, system throughput, and transaction confirmation speed, marking a significant advancement in blockchain consensus technology.
Blockchain has become a cornerstone of trustworthy, decentralised information governance. Consensus protocols and cryptographic linkages guarantee data integrity, immutability, and verifiable provenance, eliminating reliance on a single trusted authority and mitigating data fragmentation. Within smart‑healthcare ecosystems, these capabilities enable the shift from siloed, centralised repositories to distributed, patient‑centric infrastructures. Because clinical data are highly sensitive and strictly regulated, robust assurances of integrity, confidentiality, and fine‑grained authorisation are essential. Integrating blockchain and smart contracts with technologies such as distributed off‑chain storage and the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) creates a resilient, scalable, and interoperable foundation for next‑generation healthcare data management. This research introduces hChain, a four‑generation family of distributed‑ledger frameworks that progressively strengthen security, intelligence, and scalability in smart‑healthcare environments. hChain 1.0 lays the groundwork with a blockchain architecture that safeguards patient data, supports real‑time clinical telemetry, and enables seamless inter‑institutional exchange. Building on this foundation, hChain 2.0 integrates InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) storage and smart‑contract enforcement to deliver tamper‑proof, fine‑grained access control. hChain 3.0 embeds on‑chain deep‑learning analytics, providing proactive, automated decision support across the care continuum while preserving data integrity. Finally, hChain 4.0 introduces a highly scalable, permissioned ledger augmented by an Attribute‑Based Access Control (ABAC) layer, ensuring dynamic, context‑aware authorisation in complex organisational settings. The results demonstrate practical solutions for transforming data infrastructures from centralised to decentralised architectures, providing techniques that facilitate seamless integration with existing systems while enhancing blockchain scalability and privacy.
In the rapidly evolving landscape of cloud computing, ensuring secure user authentication and protection against cyber-attacks has become increasingly critical. This research proposes a novel security framework for cloud systems based on the Quantum Zero-Knowledge Proof (ZKP) technique, aiming to provide a privacy-preserving and quantum-resilient authentication mechanism. The core of the proposed model lies in leveraging photon polarization at specific quantum angles to implement secure and non-disclosive verification, effectively allowing users (provers) to prove their identity without revealing any sensitive credentials. The system's architecture integrates a Zero Knowledge Proof Engine (ZKE), which forms the backbone of the security protocol, enhancing resilience against Denial-of-Service (DoS) and Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) attacks. The quantum properties of photons enable a high level of randomness and unpredictability, significantly improving the robustness of the system. A Python-based simulation environment has been developed to model the proposed engine and conduct experimental validations. Furthermore, a web-based application interface has been designed to facilitate seamless interaction between cloud users and the authentication system, demonstrating real-time threat detection and response. Experimental results, visualized through performance metrics and interface output, confirm the effectiveness and practicality of the proposed model. This approach not only enhances security but also offers a scalable and user-friendly solution for modern cloud environments, marking a significant step toward integrating quantum principles into mainstream cybersecurity infrastructures.
Abdulrahman Alzahrani, Amin Y. Noaman, Ahmed A. A. Gad-Elrab, Fathy Eassa · 7 authors
Interoperability among heterogeneous blockchain platforms remains a significant challenge in decentralized ecosystems, especially with the growing adoption of blockchain across various industries. This research introduces the Data Standardization Module (DSM). This framework facilitates seamless communication between platforms like Ethereum and Hyperledger Fabric using a unified schema for data transformation and exchange. DSM leverages Concise Binary Object Representation (CBOR) encoding, which reduces data size by 60 % and achieves a compression ratio (CR) of 2.5. This outperforms conventional JSON-based methods, typically achieving only 20–30 % compression with lower CR values. The system ensures data security and integrity through end-to-end encryption, access control, and validation mechanisms. Performance evaluations show that DSM supports an average throughput of 250 transactions per second (TPS). In comparison, interoperability frameworks like Cosmos and Polkadot typically achieve 100–150 TPS, while early implementations of Hyperledger Fabric reported TPS as low as 300. However, optimized settings of Hyperledger Fabric now achieve over 100,000 TPS. DSM strikes a balance by providing high throughput with minimal resource overhead, making it suitable for real-world applications. This work advances blockchain interoperability by offering a lightweight, secure, and scalable framework, ideal for high-frequency use cases in healthcare, finance, and supply chains.
Abstract—File storage platforms face inherent challenges such as censorship, limited transparency, vulnerability to single points of failure, and restricted user control over data. To address these limitations, this paper proposes a decentralized file-sharing system that integrates the Ethereum blockchain with the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS). Our design leverages smart contracts to securely manage file metadata and enforce access controls, providing an immutable and tamper-resistant record of data ownership and permissions. IPFS is utilized for efficient, distributed file storage, enhancing scalability and availability. User authentication is handled through wallet-based cryptographic verification, eliminating reliance on centralized identity providers. Additionally, the system supports micropayment- based monetization via smart contracts, enabling direct and transparent transactions between content creators and consumers. The proposed platform delivers a secure, censorship-resistant, and user-empowered file-sharing environment consistent with the principles of Web3. Keywords- Blockchain, IPFS, Smart Contracts,
In supply chain finance (SCF), the long-standing issue of "difficult and expensive financing" has hindered SMEs' growth, with blockchain technology offering a novel solution.This study adopts a theoretical framework of supply chain internal and external financing to systematically analyze financing models: internal financing for upstream manufacturers, midstream distributors, and downstream e-commerce enterprises, and external bank financing via blockchain platforms.It compares decision-making differences between traditional and blockchain-enabled financing, revealing that blockchain technology reshapes the financing landscape through three core mechanisms: information sharing via distributed ledgers, credit transmission across supply chain tiers, and cost optimization through smart contracts.The study finds that blockchain reconstructs the trust system, optimizes banks' risk pricing, and alleviates financing constraints for end-tier enterprises.Additionally, platforms dominated by different entities (e.g., manufacturers, e-commerce companies, and banks) reshape supply chain pricing and profit distribution through differentiated governance rules.These findings provide theoretical support for integrating "blockchain + SCF" and guide supply chain members in optimizing financing decisions and technology adoption strategies.
Dumitrel Loghin, Shuang Liang, S. Liu, Xiong Liu · 6 authors
Zero-knowledge proofs (ZKP) are becoming a gold standard in scaling blockchains and bringing Web3 to life. At the same time, ZKP for transactions running on the Ethereum Virtual Machine require powerful servers with hundreds of CPU cores. The current zkProver implementation from Polygon is optimized for x86-64 CPUs by vectorizing key operations, such as Merkle tree building with Poseidon hashes over the Goldilocks field, with Advanced Vector Extensions (AVX and AVX512). With these optimizations, a ZKP for a batch of transactions is generated in less than two minutes. With the advent of cloud servers with ARM which are at least 10% cheaper than x86-64 servers and the implementation of ARM Scalable Vector Extension (SVE), we wonder if ARM servers can take over their x86-64 counterparts. Unfortunately, our analysis shows that current ARM CPUs are not a match for their x86-64 competitors. Graviton4 from Amazon Web Services (AWS) and Axion from Google Cloud Platform (GCP) are 1.6X and 1.4X slower compared to the latest AMD EPYC and Intel Xeon servers from AWS with AVX and AVX512, respectively, when building a Merkle tree with over four million leaves. This low performance is due to (1) smaller vector size in these ARM CPUs (128 bits versus 512 bits in AVX512) and (2) lower clock frequency. On the other hand, ARM SVE/SVE2 Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) is at least as powerful as AVX/AVX512 but more flexible. Moreover, we estimate that increasing the vector size to 512 bits will enable higher performance in ARM CPUs compared to their x86-64 counterparts while maintaining their price advantage.