Dong‐Seong Kim, Esmot Ara Tuli, Igboanusi Ikechi Saviour, Md Mehedi Hasan Somrat · 5 authors
Technological advancements have fostered ubiquitous connectivity, driving the adoption of cloud computing and cloud-based services and applications for maintenance and management purposes. Consequently, cloud computing and cloud-based services have gained popularity for their scalability and efficiency in maintenance and management. However, such interconnected systems are inherently vulnerable to cybersecurity threats, including unauthorized access, data breaches, and others. Blockchain technology, initially popularized through cryptocurrencies, has proven to be a robust and reliable solution for various applications beyond financial transactions, such as supply chain management and secure data sharing. The integration of blockchain with cloud computing has given rise to the concept of “Blockchain as a Service” (BaaS), which provides developers with scalable and ready-to-use blockchain frameworks without the need for backend management. The current blockchain network has limitations such as low transaction per second (TPS), prolonged mining times, and other challenges that make it difficult for certain service-oriented applications. To address these issues, this paper introduces a hybrid on-off chain, edge-enabled BaaS solution called Pure Chain for service computing. Pure Chain refines the consensus algorithm, enhances the mining process, and enables seamless edge-supported online-offline hybrid transactions. Moreover, modified blockchain layers to improve efficiency and scalability. Pure Chain facilitates blockchain-enabled services and smart contract deployment in a cloud computing environment. Pure Chain optimizes energy consumption and delivers transaction speeds that are 12 times faster than conventional blockchain networks.
Current systems for exchanging medical records struggle with efficiency and privacy issues. While establishing the Electronic Medical Record Exchange Center (EEC) in 2012 was intended to alleviate these issues, its centralized structure has brought about new attack vectors, such as performance bottlenecks, single points of failure, and an absence of patient consent over their data. Methods: This paper describes a novel EMR Gateway system that uses blockchain technology to exchange electronic medical records electronically, overcome the limitations of current centralized systems for sharing EMR, and leverage decentralization to enhance resilience, data privacy, and patient autonomy. Our proposed system is built on two interconnected blockchains: a Decentralized Identity Blockchain (DID-Chain) based on Ethereum for managing user identities via smart contracts, and an Electronic Medical Record Blockchain (EMR-Chain) implemented on Hyperledger Fabric to handle medical record indexes and fine-grained access control. To address the dual requirements of cross-platform data exchange and patient privacy, the system was developed based on the Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR) standard, incorporating stringent de-identification protocols. Our system is built using the FHIR standard. Think of it as a common language that lets different healthcare systems talk to each other without confusion. Plus, we are very serious about patient privacy and remove all personal details from the data to keep it confidential. When we tested its performance, the system handled things well. It can take in about 40 transactions every second and pull out data faster, at around 49 per second. To give you some perspective, this is far more than what the average hospital in Taiwan dealt with back in 2018. This shows our system is very solid and more than ready to handle even bigger workloads in the future.
Umna Iftikhar, Hafiz Muhammad Attaullah, Inam Ullah Khan, Muhammad Mansoor Alam · 6 authors
Verification of a qualification, achievement, quality, or aspect of a person’s background is one of the biggest problems nowadays as we have seen many platforms where students can get fake credentials. Every organization must select professional and academically qualified employees to give quality service. As a result, corporations rely on academic certifications to confirm and measure their prospective employees’ academic qualifications. On the other hand, these employers lack a standardized process for confirming the legitimacy of academic certificates or degrees. Because the present procedures for verifying educational certifications are time-consuming, exhausting, and costly, just a few employers verify certificates for prospective employees. This research examines the issues that are related to the smart verification of someone’s credentials. To make the process of verifying digital credentials quicker, simpler, and more cost-effective, we suggest decentralized architecture. We present the prototype, design, and implementation of the proposed framework.
Privacy-preserving technologies have introduced a paradigm shift that allows for realizable secure computing in real-world systems. The significant barrier to the practical adoption of these primitives is the computational and communication overhead that is incurred when applied at scale. In this paper, we present an overview of our efforts to bridge the gap between this overhead and practicality for privacy-preserving learning systems using multi-party computation (MPC), zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs), and fully homomorphic encryption (FHE). Through meticulous hardware/software/algorithm co-design, we show progress towards enabling LLM-scale applications in privacy-preserving settings. We demonstrate the efficacy of our solutions in several contexts, including DNN IP ownership, ethical LLM usage enforcement, and transformer inference.
Mohamed Abdessamed Rezazi, Mouhamed Amine Bouchiha, A. Bendada, Yacine Ghamri-Doudane
Roaming settlement in 5G and beyond networks demands secure, efficient, and trustworthy mechanisms for billing reconciliation between mobile operators. While blockchain promises decentralization and auditability, existing solutions suffer from critical limitations-namely, data privacy risks, assumptions of mutual trust, and scalability bottlenecks. To address these challenges, we present B5GRoam, a novel on-chain and zero-trust framework for secure, privacy-preserving, and scalable roaming settlements. B5GRoam introduces a cryptographically verifiable call detail record (CDR) submission protocol, enabling smart contracts to authenticate usage claims without exposing sensitive data. To preserve privacy, we integrate non-interactive zero-knowledge proofs (zkSNARKs) that allow on-chain verification of roaming activity without revealing user or network details. To meet the high-throughput demands of 5G environments, B5GRoam leverages Layer 2 zk-Rollups, significantly reducing gas costs while maintaining the security guarantees of Layer 1. Experimental results demonstrate a throughput of over 7,200 tx/s with strong privacy and substantial cost savings. By eliminating intermediaries and enhancing verifiability, B5GRoam offers a practical and secure foundation for decentralized roaming in future mobile networks.
Web3 applications require execution platforms that maintain confidentiality and integrity without relying on centralized trust authorities. While Trusted Execution Environments (TEEs) offer promising capabilities for confidential computing, current implementations face significant limitations when applied to Web3 contexts, particularly in security reliability, censorship resistance, and vendor independence. This paper presents dstack, a comprehensive framework that transforms raw TEE technology into a true Zero Trust platform. We introduce three key innovations: (1) Portable Confidential Containers that enable seamless workload migration across heterogeneous TEE environments while maintaining security guarantees, (2) Decentralized Code Management that leverages smart contracts for transparent governance of TEE applications, and (3) Verifiable Domain Management that ensures secure and verifiable application identity without centralized authorities. These innovations are implemented through three core components: dstack-OS, dstack-KMS, and dstack-Gateway. Together, they demonstrate how to achieve both the performance advantages of VM-level TEE solutions and the trustless guarantees required by Web3 applications. Our evaluation shows that dstack provides comprehensive security guarantees while maintaining practical usability for real-world applications.
Mohammed Ziaul Haider, Tayyaba Noreen, Mishah Uzziél Salman, Marcos Dias de Assunção · 5 authors
Cross-chain bridges and oracle DAOs represent some of the most vulnerable components of decentralized systems, with more than 2.8 billion lost due to trust failures, opaque validation behavior, and weak incentives. Current oracle designs are based on multisigs, optimistic assumptions, or centralized aggregation, exposing them to attacks and delays. Moreover, predictable committee selection enables manipulation, which threatens data integrity across chains. We propose V-ZOR, a verifiable oracle relay that integrates zero-knowledge proofs, quantum-grade randomness, and cross-chain restaking to mitigate these risks. Each oracle packet includes a Halo 2 proof verifying that the reported data was correctly aggregated using a deterministic median. To prevent committee manipulation, VZOR reseeds its VRF using auditable quantum entropy, ensuring unpredictable and secure selection of reporters. Reporters stake once on a shared restaking hub; any connected chain can submit a fraud proof to trigger slashing, removing the need for multisigs or optimistic assumptions. A prototype in Sepolia and Scroll achieves sub-300k gas verification, one-block latency, and a $\mathbf{1 0} \times$ increase in collusion cost. V-ZOR demonstrates that combining ZK attestation with quantum-randomized restaking enables a trust-minimized, high-performance oracle layer for cross-chain DeFi.
The convergence of artificial intelligence (AI), multi-access edge computing (MEC), and cloud environments has transformed identity governance by enabling real-time decision-making and seamless access control across decentralized infrastructures. However, this evolution has also introduced complex challenges concerning data privacy, identity trust, and security. This review explores privacy-first security models that integrate AI for identity governance in hybrid cloud-edge architectures. It evaluates privacy-preserving techniques such as homomorphic encryption, federated learning, and zero-knowledge proofs, emphasizing their role in ensuring secure identity authentication, authorization, and auditability. The paper critically analyzes the limitations of conventional identity and access management (IAM) frameworks in dynamic, resource-constrained edge environments and proposes adaptive models that embed privacy by design. Furthermore, the review investigates the interplay between explainable AI (XAI) and policy enforcement for transparent and compliant identity governance. By synthesizing advancements in cryptographic methods, AI reasoning engines, and decentralized identity (DID) systems, the paper outlines a roadmap for building secure, scalable, and privacy-compliant identity infrastructures in the era of pervasive computing. Keywords: Privacy-Preserving Identity Governance, AI-Driven Access Control, Multi-Access Edge Computing (MEC). Federated Identity Management, Explainable AI (XAI), Zero-Knowledge Proofs.
Omar Jarkas, Ryan K. L. Ko, Naipeng Dong, Redowan Mahmud
Integrity verification and attestation are critical in containerized environments, where traditional Linux Integrity Measurement Architecture (IMA) falls short due to its lack of container-specific contextualization. These gaps undermine container autonomy, escalate privacy risks, and impede granular integrity checks. Addressing these challenges, this paper introduces the Virtual IMA (VIMA), a novel framework that refines Linux IMA’s principles to support containerized settings. Using nested Merkle trees, VIMA’s Two-Tree Architecture (2TA) enables detailed integrity assessments across system-wide monolithic trees and individual container trees. Integrating Merkle and zero-knowledge (ZK) proofs establishes VIMA as a secure, privacy-preserving verification and attestation solution. Our comparative analysis and initial prototype testing reveal that VIMA significantly improves upon traditional IMA with minimal performance overhead, offering substantial scope for optimization.
Md. Rafid Haque, Sakibul Islam Munna, Sabbir Ahmed, Md. Tariqul Islam · 6 authors
Centralized version control systems (VCS) are vital for software development but pose risks of data loss and ownership disputes. While blockchain offers a decentralized alternative, existing solutions are often hindered by high latency, compromising the real-time collaboration essential for modern workflows. This study introduces a novel hybrid architecture combining the security of the Ethereum blockchain and the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) with two key contributions: 1) Shamir's Secret Sharing (SSS) to create a trust-minimized model for key distribution, and 2) an authoritative-first, optimistic-fallback retrieval protocol utilizing a temporary middleware to decouple the user experience from blockchain confirmation delays. We implemented a full prototype and conducted a comprehensive performance evaluation on the public Sepolia testnet. Our results demonstrate that this architecture not only provides a secure, auditable, and resilient platform for source code hosting but also achieves highly competitive user-perceived performance. Our user-perceived push time reduces submission latency by up to 49% compared to a standard git push for common repository sizes, proving that a well-designed decentralized VCS can balance the core tenets of security and decentralization with the practical need for speed and efficiency.
In the rapidly evolving landscape of blockchain technology, the twin challenges of scalability and security remain significant obstacles to widespread adoption. Traditional blockchain architectures struggle to balance the increasing demands for transaction throughput and the imperative of maintaining robust security measures. This work addresses these limitations by proposing an innovative model that integrates advanced privacy mechanisms, rigorous security analysis, and scalability enhancements to forge a more resilient and efficient blockchain framework. The cornerstone of our model is the introduction of ZeroKnowledge Proofs (ZKPs) to enhance user privacy significantly. By enabling transaction verification without revealing sensitive information, ZKPs mitigate information leakage and boost transaction confidentiality. Our findings suggest an estimated 15% improvement in privacy levels, marking a substantial advancement over existing methods that often compromise user privacy for transparency. Addressing the security aspect, we employ Temporal Logic of Actions Plus (TLA+) for formal verification of the blockchain protocol. This method allows us to model the blockchain's behavior systematically, ensuring its correctness, safety, and liveness even under adverse conditions such as Byzantine faults. Our analysis reveals a 98% success rate in detecting and thwarting Byzantine behaviors, thereby substantiating the robustness of our proposed model against a range of security threats. To tackle the issue of scalability, we introduce adaptive sharding with dynamic load balancing. This approach not only partitions the network into manageable shards but also optimizes transaction processing by adapting to changes in transaction volume and network congestion. Our results prove a 20% increase in transaction throughput and a 25% decrease in network latency, showcasing the effectiveness of adaptive sharding in enhancing blockchain scalability and performance.
Aiming at the problems of insufficient integrity assurance, high risk of privacy leakage, and low cross-departmental circulation efficiency in the field of government data security, this study proposes an optimized blockchain solution integrating an improved Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) consensus algorithm and dynamic Attribute-Based Encryption (ABE). By constructing a government data security storage model, the data layer's hash verification mechanism (SHA-256 + Merkle Patricia Tree) and network layer's P2P protocol (with packet loss retransmission) are optimized based on typical government blockchain platforms (e.g., Nanjing Electronic License Sharing Platform). Experiments with 200 nodes simulated government networks, comparing TPS, data verification delay, and privacy protection before and after optimization. The results show that after optimization: TPS increased by 37.2% (from 89.6 to 123.0), cross-departmental data verification time was shortened to 0.42 seconds, and zero-knowledge proof was used to realize anonymized query of sensitive fields (such as ID card numbers and real estate information). The research indicates that this technical solution can effectively resolve the contradictions among integrity, privacy, and circulation of government data, providing technical references for the engineering implementation of government blockchain systems.
This paper presents a comprehensive literature review on the application of blockchain technology in ensuring data integrity and security within decentralized applications (dApps). Blockchain, with its inherent features such as immutability, decentralization, and transparency, offers a robust framework for safeguarding data across various sectors, including finance, healthcare, and supply chain management. Through an extensive qualitative analysis of existing studies, this research explores how cryptographic techniques, consensus mechanisms, and blockchain's distributed nature contribute to securing data in decentralized environments. The review examines key findings from the literature, including the integration of advanced cryptographic methods such as zero-knowledge proofs and homomorphic encryption, which enhance data privacy while maintaining integrity. Furthermore, the study discusses the challenges of scalability, energy consumption, and off-chain data security in blockchain-based systems, identifying areas for future research. The review also highlights the importance of hybrid blockchain models and scalable consensus algorithms in addressing the limitations of current blockchain frameworks. Overall, this paper contributes to the growing body of knowledge on blockchain-based data security and integrity in decentralized applications and offers recommendations for further research to enhance the scalability, efficiency, and environmental sustainability of blockchain systems.
The rapid development of large language models (LLMs) has significantly propelled the development of artificial intelligence (AI) agents, which are increasingly evolving into diverse autonomous entities, advancing the LLM-based multi-agent systems (LaMAS). However, current agentic ecosystems remain fragmented and closed. Establishing an interconnected and scalable paradigm for Agentic AI has become a critical prerequisite. Although Agentic Web proposes an open architecture to break the ecosystem barriers, its implementation still faces core challenges such as privacy protection, data management, and value measurement. Existing centralized or semi-centralized paradigms suffer from inherent limitations, making them inadequate for supporting large-scale, heterogeneous, and cross-domain autonomous interactions. To address these challenges, this paper introduces the blockchain-enabled trustworthy Agentic Web (BetaWeb). By leveraging the inherent strengths of blockchain, BetaWeb not only offers a trustworthy and scalable infrastructure for LaMAS but also has the potential to advance the Web paradigm from Web3 (centered on data ownership) towards Web3.5, which emphasizes ownership of agent capabilities and the monetization of intelligence. Beyond a systematic examination of the BetaWeb framework, this paper presents a five-stage evolutionary roadmap, outlining the path of LaMAS from passive execution to advanced collaboration and autonomous governance. We also conduct a comparative analysis of existing products and discuss key challenges of BetaWeb from multiple perspectives. Ultimately, we argue that deep integration between blockchain and LaMAS can lay the foundation for a resilient, trustworthy, and sustainably incentivized digital ecosystem. A summary of the enabling technologies for each stage is available at https://github.com/MatZaharia/BetaWeb.
Driven by globalization and digitization, the Mobile Industrial Supply Chain Internet of Things (IoT) has gradually developed, utilizing mobile devices and IoT technologies to enable real-time monitoring and efficient responses across various stages. However, with the growing demand for high-frequency data exchange, the Mobile Industrial Supply Chain IoT faces significant challenges in data security, authentication, and privacy protection. This paper proposes a security authentication scheme based on blockchain and group key management, leveraging the decentralized and tamper-resistant features of blockchain, the privacy-preserving authentication method of Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKP), and a hierarchical key management mechanism based on binary key trees. This approach aims to enhance the security and scalability of Mobile Industrial Supply Chain IoT. The experimental section simulates scenarios such as dynamic node addition and key updates, evaluating the performance in terms of encryption, decryption, and key management efficiency, thus demonstrating its superiority in multi-party collaborative environments.
Power industry software, as a core tool for modern power equipment control and management, is facing increasingly severe cybersecurity threats.Distributed ledger technology provides new ideas for power software security detection due to its decentralization, transparency and tamper-proof characteristics.This paper discusses the application of distributed ledger technology in the security detection of software development in the electric power industry, and proposes a trusted traceability and quality access control reinforcement method based on distributed ledger.The research designs the traceability data model and smart contract system to realize the trusted collection, storage and verification of security data; at the same time, it proposes the sensitive data aggregation method based on homomorphic encryption and the tamper-proof technology of RSA asymmetric encryption, and constructs the data communication structure of Overlay structure, which guarantees the complete transmission of electric power software security detection data and traceability tracking.The experimental results show that compared with SHA256 algorithm and DyRH model, the average value of the error localization time of this method is reduced to 9.23ms, which is 8.6ms and 4.1ms less than the control group, respectively; the accuracy rate of the error localization reaches 98.33%, which is improved by 4.77% and 1.79%; and in the test of the anti-attack performance, the average number of tampered data is only 189, which is respectively reduced by 184 and 156.The study proves that distributed ledger technology can effectively enhance data credibility, strengthen traceability, and enhance the strength of system quality access control in software development security detection in the power industry, which provides a new technical path and solution for the information security of the power system.
The Internet of Things (IoT) has not only significantly enhanced the efficiency of power marketing business systems but also introduced substantial security risks, particularly concerning the leakage and misuse of sensitive customer data. The current existence of a variety of data security auditing programs is more or less flawed, unable to comprehensively rule out the risk of data leakage. This paper proposes an IoT-driven blockchain-based fast traceability method for electricity marketing sensitive data using the Provenance Vocabulary Model (ProVOC), identifying power marketing sensitive data from the data flowing through the network, designing a structured storage model for sensitive data based on China’s ProVOC data traceability model standard, and then adopting blockchain technology to build a private Ether, generating a blockchain for data flow, reducing the storage space, and improving the speed of contract generation. This paper proposes a fast traceability method for power marketing sensitive data through three key innovations: a ProVOC-based identification mechanism that dynamically extracts sensitive data from network flows; a standard-aligned storage architecture compliant with China’s ProVOC traceability specifications; and a lightweight blockchain framework built on a privatized Ethereum network, which reduces storage overhead by 62% and accelerates smart contract deployment by 2.3 × compared to conventional approaches.
Sandeep Gajanan Sutar, B M Praveen, Amolkumar N. Jadhav
Cloud computing has transformed data storage and access with flexible and scalable solutions. However, its dependence on third-party services poses significant concerns regarding data privacy and integrity. To tackle these concerns, blockchain technology known for its decentralized structure and tamper resistance offers a promising security enhancement for cloud environments. This paper explores and evaluates various blockchain-based mechanisms for securing cloud data and proposes a hybrid model that integrates blockchain with existing cloud infrastructures. Leveraging consensus protocols and cryptographic hashing, the proposed approach aims to mitigate data breaches, unauthorized access, and tampering. A practical implementation demonstrates the model’s effectiveness in fostering trust, transparency, and reliability in cloud services. Keywords: Block-chain, Data Privacy, Security, Data Integrity, Distributed ledger, Cloud computing
Abdullah Ayub Khan, Asif Ali Laghari, Hamad Al-Mansour, Leila Jamel · 8 authors
The multimedia environment has undergone significant growth, particularly in the area of multimedia data and its migration to cloud platforms, which has raised issues about security, confidentiality, data integrity, and privacy protection. While Blockchain Distributed Ledger Technology (BDLT) offers decentralized trust and transparency the advent of Quantum Computing threatens classical cryptographic primitives, which make multimedia data increasingly vulnerable. This paper proposes a novel and secure framework that collaborates BDLT with quantum-resilient, mainly known post-quantum cryptographic schemes to ensure long-term data integrity and privacy preservation in cloud-based infrastructures. Due to this, the proposed solution enables secure, efficient, and transparent that helps in public auditing of multimedia content without compromising stakeholder confidentiality. It leverages Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs), lattice-based cryptography, and smart contract automation, which model fortifies data authenticity verification against quantum attacks. Simulation results illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed framework that achieves a 98.21% accuracy in data integrity verification, a 96.84% reduction in quantum vulnerability, and an 87.85% efficiency gain in auditing speed compared to classical BDLT-enabled platforms. In addition, privacy leakage in multimedia systems is reduced by 92.47% proving the framework’s robustness. This solution underscores the potential of synergizing BDLT, quantum secure cryptography, and cloud computing to build a future-proof solution for privacy-protected multimedia data management and public auditing.
Open access
Cloud Data Security Solutions
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
Ruslan Kysil, István András Seres, Péter Kutas, Nándor Kelecsényi
This work explores the application and efficient deployment of (standardized) post-quantum (PQ) digital signature algorithms in the blockchain environment. Specifically, we implement and evaluate four PQ signatures in the Ethereum Virtual Machine: W-OTS+ , XMSS, SPHINCS+, and MAYO. We focus on optimizing the gas costs of the verification algorithms as that is the signature schemes’ only algorithm executed on-chain, thus incurring financial costs (transaction fees) for the users. Hence, the verification algorithm is the signature schemes’ main bottleneck for decentralized applications. We examine two methods to verify post-quantum digital signatures on-chain. Our practical performance evaluation shows that full on-chain verification is often prohibitively costly. Naysayer proofs (FC’24) allow a novel optimistic verification mode. We observe that the Naysayer verification mode is generally the cheapest, at the cost of additional trust assumptions. We release our implementation called poqeth as an open-source library.
This paper proposes a novel architectural framework for robust security within dynamic multi-cloud environments, addressing the limitations of traditional perimeter defenses. It establishes and elaborates upon core Zero-Trust principles, including stringent identity validation, fine-grained access control, and perpetual operational vigilance, to counter contemporary cyber threats such as lateral infiltration and cloud-native attack vectors. The contribution details a systematic approach to fortifying distributed cloud workloads through the enforcement of least-privilege access and micro-segmentation strategies. Furthermore, the paper critically examines advanced policy enforcement mechanisms, enhanced identity management solutions, and the strategic integration of cryptographic and distributed ledger technologies to achieve superior defensive postures. This work delivers actionable insights for designing resilient security postures across diverse cloud infrastructures.
A blockchain is a distributed ledger that allows users to exchange information without a centralized authority. This technology enables users to send and receive tokens among other applications, such as transactions, product management, and elections. It is possible to send data and tokens inside a single blockchain, but a method to efficiently share the data and tokens among different blockchains has not yet been con structed. Cross-chain communication, the focal point of several recent research efforts, is a scheme for sending data or tokens among different blockchains. In existing studies, a trusted third party (TTP) is used to ensure fair rates of token exchange among different blockchains. However, because blockchains are originally designed with a policy that does not incorporate the use of TTPs, the fair exchange rate should not be determined by TTPs, but rather by the market price of tokens among users. When exchange rates are determined from quotes among users, the preferred scheme is to determine the exchange rate offered by many users as an auction. Here, some existing cross-chain communication systems use smart contracts that automatically execute arbitrary processes on the blockchain. However, such schemes require a gas fee each time a smart contract is executed. Thus, implementing an auction scheme that determines the fair exchange rate among different blockchains would necessitate each user to pay a fee for each new token offered, which would result in high gas fees. In this study, we propose a scheme to deter mine exchange rates from quotes among users with a relatively low gas fee. Using a first-price sealed-bid auction and commit ment scheme, the user with the highest token value can be identified without revealing the other users' token offer values. In our scheme, the largest token value among users is determined as the exchange rate using an external Smart Contract (SC) instead of a TTP. We further modify the existing insert key-value com mitment scheme to aggregate the commitment values of token offers. Our scheme is based on the generalized RSA assumption. By proving that it satisfies the key-binding property, we prove that the token sender cannot act maliciously. We further implement the proposed scheme and demonstrate that the gas fees and data space required to implement the proposed scheme are practically feasible.
This work presents a cryptographic protocol for secure multi-party verification that achieves com putational privacy while maintaining exceptional computational efficiency. The proposed Position Based Commitment Protocol (PBCP) introduces a position-dependent nonce mechanism combined with cyclic verification architecture, enabling se cure computation over private inputs without re vealing individual parameters. Unlike existing commitment schemes that require complex cryp tographic assumptions, computationally expensive zero-knowledge proofs, or extensive public key in frastructure, Fundamental innovation lies in adapt ing physical laws of fluid dynamics to create nat ural mathematical relationships where each verifi cation equation contains multiple unknowns, mak ing parameter extraction computationally infeasible while preserving verification integrity. The proto col preliminary analysis suggests O(n) communica tion complexity with O(n2) verification complexity, providing substantial improvements over traditional Byzantine Agreement protocols that require O(n3) message exchanges. Comprehensive security analysis reveals robust resistance against statistical attacks with complexity O(R3) where R represents the pa rameter range, complete immunity to timing attacks through blind submission mechanisms, and resilience against collusion attacks involving up to n/2 − 1 ad versarial parties. The protocol’s unique cyclic neigh bor verification creates an interdependent validation network that prevents individual parameter extrac tion while maintaining system-wide integrity through mathematical interdependence rather than crypto graphic assumptions.