The paper presents a novel framework for implementing decentralized algorithms based on non-fungible tokens (NFTs) for digital twin management in aviation, with a focus on component lifecycle tracking. The proposed approach uses NFTs to create unique, immutable digital representations of physical aviation components capturing real-time records of a component’s entire lifecycle, from manufacture to retirement. This paper outlines detailed workflows for key processes, including part tracking, maintenance records, certification and compliance, supply chain management, flight logs, ownership and leasing, technical documentation, and quality assurance. This paper introduces a class of algorithms designed to manage the complex relationships between physical components, their digital twins, and associated NFTs. A unified model is presented to demonstrate how NFTs are created and updated across various stages of a component’s lifecycle, ensuring data integrity, regulatory compliance, and operational efficiency. This paper also discusses the architecture of the proposed system, exploring the relationships between data sources, digital twins, blockchain, NFTs, and other critical components. It further examines the main challenges of the NFT-based approach and outlines future research directions.
In the European Union (EU), there are two distinct periods regarding the regulation of crypto assets, related services and crypto assets service providers. The distinction is based on the existence or lack of specific regulation of crypto assets. From a different perspective, a distinction can also be made between the regulatory environment before and after the implementation of the Markets in Crypto Assets regulation (MiCA/MiCAR). The former period can be characterized as the EU regulatory wild west of crypto assets, where the crypto sector was regulated, but only partially, by amending existing legislation. The second era of crypto-relevant EU regulation is the development of a specific regulatory framework striving for consistent legal cover of the whole crypto sector. In this paper, without aiming to be exhaustive, the MiCA's specific regulatory framework applying to the crypto asset market is described. The aim of this paper is to provide a summary overview of the state or lack of provisions in the MiCA regarding non-fungible tokens.
Héctor Cañas, Josefa Mula, Francisco Campuzano Bolarín
Industry 4.0 (I4.0) technologies generate new opportunities for developing smart models, algorithms and tools to support supply chain (SC) production planning and control (PPC), or smart PPC (SPPC 4.0). Paired with opportunities, challenges arise in integrating sustainability and resilience in SC network design (SCND) according under I4.0. The main novelty of this paper is to propose two multi-objective models that integrate strategical and tactical PPC decisions into a sustainable-resilient SC under I4.0 towards SPPC 4.0. Sustainability is incorporated in terms of reducing costs and CO2 emissions, and a job creation factor. Resilience is incorporated in terms of contracting support suppliers. To solve the multi-objective models, the augmented epsilon constraint method (AUGMECON) was used. This algorithm minimises a target objective function while it treats the others as constraints. Our experiments indicate that AUGMECON is sensitive to the choice of epsilon values. Furthermore, a synthetic data generation tool called SR1-SR2_SynthDataGenerator was developed. This tool generates input datasets to validate and evaluate our models against benchmarks. A stochastic model (SR2) is also proposed that, with small datasets, takes 8.39 seconds to solve. The proposed models can be useful for industries that seek sustainable and resilient SCs to adapt to changing environments.
Current autonomous building research primarily focuses on energy efficiency and automation. While traditional artificial intelligence has advanced autonomous building research, it often relies on predefined rules and struggles to adapt to complex, evolving building operations. Moreover, the centralized organizational structures of facilities management hinder transparency in decision-making, limiting true building autonomy. Research on decentralized governance and adaptive building infrastructure, which could overcome these challenges, remains relatively unexplored. This paper addresses these limitations by introducing a novel Decentralized Autonomous Building Cyber-Physical System framework that integrates Decentralized Autonomous Organizations, Large Language Models, and digital twins to create a smart, self-managed, operational, and financially autonomous building infrastructure. This study develops a full-stack decentralized application to facilitate decentralized governance of building infrastructure. An LLM-based artificial intelligence assistant is developed to provide intuitive human-building interaction for blockchain and building operation management-related tasks and enable autonomous building operation. Six real-world scenarios were tested to evaluate the autonomous building system's workability, including building revenue and expense management, AI-assisted facility control, and autonomous adjustment of building systems. Results indicate that the prototype successfully executes these operations, confirming the framework's suitability for developing building infrastructure with decentralized governance and autonomous operation.
Sabah Suhail, Mubashar Iqbal, Rasheed Hussain, Saif Ur Rehman Malik · 5 authors
Cyber–physical systems (CPSs) are being increasingly adopted for industrial applications, yet they involve a dynamic threat landscape that requires CPSs to adapt to emerging threats during their operation. Recently, digital twin (DT) technology (which refers to a virtual representation of a product, process, or environment) has emerged as a suitable candidate to address the security challenges faced by dynamic CPSs. DT has the capability of strengthening the security of CPSs by continuously mapping the physical to twin counterparts to detect inconsistencies. The existing DT-based security solutions are constrained by untrustworthy data dissemination as well as limited data sharing among the involved stakeholders, which, in turn, limit the ability of DTs to run accurate simulations or make valid decisions. To address these challenges, this paper proposes a modular framework called TR usted and I ntelligent cyber- P hysica L syst E m (TRIPLE), that leverages blockchain , DTs, and threat intelligence (TI) to secure CPSs. The blockchain-based DT components in the framework provide data integrity, traceability, and availability for trusted DTs. Furthermore, to accurately and comprehensively model system states, the framework envisions fusing process knowledge for modeling DTs from system specification-based and learning-based information and other sources, including infrastructure-as-code (IaC) and knowledge base (KB). The framework also integrates TI for future-proofing against emerging threats, such that threats can be detected either reactively by mapping the behavior of physical and virtual spaces or proactively by TI and threat hunting. We demonstrate the viability of the framework through a proof of concept . Finally, we formally verify the TRIPLE framework to demonstrate its correctness and effectiveness in enhancing CPS security.
Christos Roumeliotis, Minas Dasygenis, Vasilis Lazaridis, Michael Dossis
The Fourth Industrial Revolution has transformed industries and supply chains by integrating advanced operations, tools, and logistics services. Despite these advancements, challenges persist, particularly in ensuring data dependability, security, and operational efficiency. Digital twins (DTs), which replicate real-world components and processes, have emerged as essential tools for enhancing predictive analytics, simulation, and product lifecycle management in Industry 4.0. However, traditional DT development relies on centralized systems, which are vulnerable to data tampering and security breaches, especially in the management of transaction logs and historical data. To address these challenges, this review provides a comprehensive analysis of the current state of integrating blockchain with DTs. Using a qualitative research methodology, including desk research, case studies, and interviews with industry experts, we analyze various blockchain-based DT applications across industries and specifically in supply chain management. The findings reveal that blockchain-enhanced DTs can significantly improve data integrity, traceability, and security, thus boosting operational efficiency and quality control in supply chains. Additionally, this study identifies key integration techniques and the role of blockchain in automating processes through smart contracts. This review provides insights into the practical implications of blockchain-based DTs, highlighting their potential to enhance the reliability and scalability of Industry 4.0 operations.
This review proposes a comprehensive framework that integrates data fusion with Distributed Ledger Technologies (DLT) to enhance sustainability in supply chain management. In today’s global supply chains, ensuring transparency, efficiency, and environmental responsibility is critical, yet the lack of real-time visibility and data fragmentation presents significant challenges. The framework addresses these issues by merging data from multiple sources, including IoT devices, operational databases, and external environmental factors, using advanced data fusion algorithms. DLT, with its decentralized, immutable, and transparent nature, ensures the integrity and security of the data, allowing all stakeholders to access accurate and tamper-proof information. The fusion of data within a DLT infrastructure not only improves traceability and accountability but also enables the automation of sustainability checks via smart contracts. These contracts can trigger actions based on predefined sustainability metrics such as carbon emissions, energy consumption, and resource efficiency. Furthermore, predictive analytics and machine learning algorithms integrated into the system provide real-time monitoring and optimization of sustainability performance throughout the supply chain. The proposed review offers numerous benefits, including enhanced transparency, reduced operational costs, improved sustainability outcomes, and risk mitigation. It also addresses challenges such as scalability, data privacy, and regulatory compliance, offering solutions to overcome these hurdles. By exploring case studies of successful implementations, this review demonstrates the practical applications and future potential of combining DLT and data fusion for sustainable supply chain management, positioning it as a critical tool for organizations aiming to meet environmental and regulatory demands in an increasingly digital and eco-conscious world.
Senay A. Gebreab, Ahmad Musamih, Haya R. Hasan, Khaled Salah · 7 authors
Digital twins and digital artifacts have become integral components of metaverse platforms, providing users with a rich, immersive, and interactive digital experience through the deployment of diverse digital twins and digital artifacts such as 3D avatars, images, and objects. To date, a significant challenge persists in the lack of practical mechanisms to enable seamless teleportation and cross-metaverse interoperability for these digital twins and digital artifacts. There is also a lack of trusted monetization methods that facilitate trading and leasing of digital twins and digital artifacts. To address these important challenges, this paper proposes a blockchain and Non-Fungible Token (NFT)-based solution that facilitates the integration and teleportation of these digital twins and digital artifacts by providing trusted metadata, verifying ownership, and ensuring the authenticity of digital creations in the virtual world. Key to our solution is the introduction of a bridging mechanism that enables cross-metaverse interoperability, allowing for the portable transfer of NFTs across decentralized metaverse platforms. In addition, our solution focuses on empowering original digital creators by enabling the monetization of their creations through the ownership management capabilities offered by NFTs. To reliably and securely store the metadata and content of tokenized digital twins and digital artifacts, we integrate into our solution the Interplanetary File System (IPFS), a decentralized storage system. To demonstrate the feasibility of our solution, we have developed and deployed all necessary smart contracts that govern the main functionalities and interactions of the proposed system on the Ethereum Goerli Testnet. We present our proposed system architecture, accompanied by informative sequence diagrams, algorithms, and testing details. We discuss how our proposed solution attains the main objectives outlined in the paper. We evaluate our proposed solution in terms of cost and security. We have made the complete source code of our smart contracts publicly available on GitHub.
David F. Bucher, Jens Hunhevicz, Ranjith K. Soman, Pieter Pauwels · 5 authors
The field of construction informatics is fragmented and lacks clarity in understanding the interconnection of different data management strategies. This makes it challenging to address industry-specific data management issues. Using a critical interpretive synthesis, this study reviews and integrates both present and emerging data management approaches in construction informatics. The review is meant to be comprehensive, encompassing technologies and concepts such as Open Schema, Information Container, Common Data Environments, Linked Data, as well as cutting-edge Web3 technologies such as blockchain and decentralized data protocols. The different approaches are identified and classified into five categories and mapped into a two-dimensional framework that considers data storage and data processing modes. The systematic categorization provides a simple, but comprehensive understanding of data management strategies in construction informatics. Moreover, the framework allows to identify the state of the art and trends of data management approaches, providing guidance for future research perspectives, especially in the intersection with Web3 technologies.
Yongshun Xu, Ming Chi, Heap‐Yih Chong, Cen-Ying Lee · 5 authors
Building information modeling (BIM) and blockchain applications have introduced significant benefits to the architecture, engineering, construction, and operation (AECO) industry in recent years. Although publications on BIM and blockchain integration have been increasing, no systematic examination of the present status and managerial implications of integrated BIM and blockchain has been conducted. To bridge this gap, this paper conducts a state-of-the-art review of the development of integrated BIM and blockchain in a built environment. A combination of qualitative and quantitative methods was adopted to synthesize and analyze the research evidence. The results revealed five key managerial implications of BIM integration with blockchain at the project level: design and collaboration, financial management, construction management, information management, and integration management (with other cutting-edge technologies). Challenges and opportunities are outlined and articulated from both technological and managerial perspectives, such as stakeholder management, impact assessment, real-time project management, information redundancy, and incompatibility.
The rapid integration of the Internet of Things (IoT) into logistics and supply chain management (SCM) marks a significant transformation towards enhanced efficiencies, security, and sustainability. Through a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of 2680 publications from the Scopus database, this study charts the evolution of IoT within logistics and SCM and reveals a shift from foundational explorations to mature implementations. The research unfolds a complex thematic structure, highlighting the revolutionary impacts of IoT and related technologies such as RFID, the synergy of Industry 4.0 with SCM through Artificial Intelligence (AI) and the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), the strategic role of blockchain for enhanced traceability and security, and the advent of novel communication and encryption technologies for secure data exchanges. Further, the analysis categorizes the scholarly discourse into critical areas including big data and IoT optimization in SCM, IoT-driven innovation in the food supply chain, applications of blockchain and smart contracts, digital transformation through Industry 4.0, security advancements with intelligent systems, and the exploration of advanced technologies for Industry 4.0 and 5.0. This review not only delineates the intellectual landscape of IoT applications in logistics and SCM but also identifies emerging research areas such as blockchain integration, 5G potential, and AI-driven optimizations, suggesting pathways for future research to broaden the understanding in this dynamically evolving field. It serves as an essential resource for academics and practitioners, providing insights into the transformative role of IoT in logistics and SCM and proposing directions for future technological and academic endeavors.
Abstract Although Industry 4.0 plays the role of a catalyst in the transition from a linear economy to a circular economy (CE), some sustainability goals are neglected by prioritizing machines over humans. Industry 5.0 insists on combining technology with human values to achieve sustainable development goals. Therefore, the integration of CE and Industry 5.0 leads to sustainable synergy in various industries, especially in manufacturing industries. However, their integration is always associated with challenges and barriers. This study identifies a set of these barriers in the electric vehicle battery production industry from the financial, technical, supply chain, cultural, and regulatory and processes perspectives through a deep literature review. The fuzzy weighted influence non‐linear gauge system method is used to analyze the relationship between identified barriers and their prioritization. Finally, we leverage the knowledge of four experts from an electric vehicle battery manufacturing company in Southeast Asia to validate the proposed approach and to rank the barriers. The results demonstrate that immature technology providers are the biggest obstacle in the integration of blockchain‐based CE and Industry 5.0 in the electric vehicle battery manufacturing industry.
Xuling Ye, Ningshuang Zeng, Xingyu Tao, Daguang Han · 5 authors
With the digital transformation of the construction industry, the need to improve construction business process collaboration and automation is increasing. However, as construction projects usually involve many stakeholders with complex relationships and insufficient mutual trust, the existing technologies cannot fulfill the requirements of the construction industry. This paper explores the integration of blockchain, smart contracts, and process automation technologies into construction business processes, shedding light on both managerial and technical challenges. The study introduces a comprehensive technical framework meticulously designed to align with the intricate nature of construction practices while focusing on the resolution of legal complexities associated with smart contract applications and the facilitation of process collaboration and automation. The framework comprises three core modules: (1) action definition and extension to process models, (2) standardized mapping for automatic smart contract generation, and (3) smart contract visualization for reliable process collaboration and automation. This multifaceted approach caters to the specific needs of construction management, standardization, interoperability, and visualization. The framework’s practicality is further evaluated through real-world testing within a construction payment case, effectively showcasing its efficacy and applicability in tangible business scenarios. While this paper represents a significant step forward in addressing construction business process collaboration and automation challenges, it acknowledges the necessity for ongoing research and development to refine and expand these innovative solutions to meet the evolving demands of construction management.
Diana Paola Amaya Amado, Fabian Andrés Cárdenas Diaz, Roció del Pilar Cabrera Pantoja, Lina María Bastidas Sanchez
This article reviews the advances, benefits and contributions of artificial intelligence to business organizations, without ignoring the need for skilled human labor and talent that companies have always required and which is essential for the economic development of a company. The implementation of legal frameworks and regulations that will in turn address issues such as organizational privacy, cybersecurity and liability are important aspects to be addressed in this article. Thus, this paper focuses on the compilation of scientific articles, books and other texts in which important topics were evidenced such as (i). - Innovation and invention, (ii). - Big Data, (iii). -Implementation of artificial intelligence in organizations, and (iv). -legality and responsibility of decisions, likewise, it examines the legal challenges of AI and highlights that smart contracts are a technological innovation that allows secure, fast and low-risk transactions using blockchain technology, this is why the literature review aims to explore how technology, artificial intelligence and communication tools can facilitate the work of the population, decreasing the time spent on some activities
Mohamed Nour El-Din, João Poças Martins, Nuno Ramos, Pedro F. Pereira
Energy performance-based contracts (EPCs) offer a promising solution for enhancing the energy performance of buildings, which is an overarching step towards achieving Net Zero Carbon Buildings, addressing climate change and improving occupants’ comfort. Despite their potential, their execution is constrained by difficulties that hinder their diffusion in the architecture, engineering, construction, and operation industry. Notably, the Measurement and Verification process is considered a significant impediment due to data sharing, storage, and security challenges. Nevertheless, there have been minimal efforts to analyze research conducted in this field systematically. A systematic analysis of 113 identified journal articles was conducted to fill this gap. A paucity of research tackling the utilization of digital technologies to enhance the implementation of EPCs was found. Consequently, this article proposes a framework integrating Digital Twin and Blockchain technologies to provide an enhanced EPC execution environment. Digital Twin technology leverages the system by monitoring and evaluating energy performance in real-time, predicting future performance, and facilitating informed decisions. Blockchain technology ensures the integrity, transparency, and accountability of information. Moreover, a private Blockchain infrastructure was originally introduced in the framework to eliminate high transaction costs related to on-chain storage and potential concerns regarding the confidentiality of information in open distributed ledgers.
Seyed Mojtaba Hosseini Bamakan, Saeed Banaeian Far
The fourth industrial revolution has significantly increased the adoption of Digital Twins (DTs) across various sectors, including intelligent manufacturing, automation, logistics, and medical analysis. Despite substantial progress in deploying DT projects, numerous challenges remain, such as managing distributed data flows, protecting commercial confidentiality, securing intellectual property, and ensuring privacy and security. This research introduces a novel approach to addressing these challenges by leveraging blockchain and Web3 technologies, including non-fungible tokens (NFTs) and Distributed Autonomous Organizations (DAOs). The study aims to develop a distributed, tamper-proof DT cooperation platform that facilitates traceable and trustworthy data sharing while preserving intellectual property rights and enabling decentralized governance. This platform enhances idea and invention ownership, promotes collective decision-making through consensus protocols, and explores innovative solutions like blockchain-based federated learning and efficient DT project fundraising tools. Relying on security models and analysis tools, this study addresses several important security analysis methods/tools/models (e.g., random oracle model, BAN logic, AVISPA tool, and TAMARIN prover) that are known as practical analysis methods. They can strongly prove every claimed security feature of DT projects. The proposed solutions set the stage for future academic and industrial advancements, supported by a comprehensive SWOT (Strongness - Weakness - Opportunity - Threat) analysis, and outline potential future research directions.
Xiaozhi Ma, Wenbo Du, Lingyue Li, Jing Liu · 5 authors
Abstract The integration of Blockchain Technology (BT) with Digital Twins (DTs) is becoming increasingly recognized as an effective strategy to enhance trust, interoperability, and data privacy in virtual spaces such as the metaverse. Although there is a significant body of research at the intersection of BT and DTs, a thorough review of the field has not yet been conducted. This study performs a systematic literature review on BT and DTs, using the CiteSpace analytic tool to evaluate the content and bibliometric information. The review covers 976 publications, identifying the significant effects of BT on DTs and the integration challenges. Key themes emerging from keyword analysis include augmented reality, smart cities, smart manufacturing, cybersecurity, lifecycle management, Ethereum, smart grids, additive manufacturing, blockchain technology, and digitalization. Based on this analysis, the study proposes a development framework for BT-enhanced DTs that includes supporting technologies and applications, main applications, advantages and functionalities, primary contexts of application, and overarching goals and principles. Additionally, an examination of bibliometric data reveals three developmental phases in cross-sectional research on BT and DTs: technology development, technology use, and technology deployment. These phases highlight the research field’s evolution and provide valuable direction for future studies on BT-enhanced DTs.
Haya R. Hasan, Mohammad Madine, Ahmad Musamih, Raja Jayaraman · 7 authors
Recent years have witnessed the emergence of digital twins in the industrial metaverse, significantly transforming sectors such as manufacturing, automotive, oil and gas, and gaming. As a result, these sectors have experienced increased efficiency, innovation, and revolutionary solutions. Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) have the potential to enhance digital twins in the industrial metaverse by offering opportunities for monetization, traceability, and tracking. Moreover, NFTs can reshape the way industries operate by providing superior transparency, asset management, and intellectual property protection. This paper explores the potential of different types of NFTs, including dynamic and composable NFTs, in various applications within the industrial metaverse that heavily relies on digital twins. We present various industrial use cases where NFTs play a major role. Specifically, we design, implement, and test two use cases involving dynamic and composable NFTs. The data processing methods include algorithm development, simulation, and empirical testing within the industrial metaverse framework. Finally, we identify open research areas and future directions for the industrial metaverse.
Bilge Gokhan Çelik, Yewande S. Abraham, Mohsen Attaran
The emergence of construction 5.0 marks a shift toward a human-centric approach to digitization within the construction industry. Along with diverse digital innovations related to this shift, blockchain technology offers vast opportunities for the construction industry, including streamlining project management processes, enhancing transparency in payment processes, and improving contract administration. This paper systematically reviews 109 articles using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol to examine the applications of blockchain in construction, identifying twenty-three topics across eight thematic areas. These areas were further mapped using VOSviewer Online version 1.2.3 to identify interrelationships among the themes and highlight their broad impact. Key features like immutability, security, transparency, and traceability show promise in contract administration, supply chain logistics, facilities management, and sustainability. However, the study also describes the challenges of adopting blockchain in construction, emphasizing the need for enhanced stakeholder education, improved regulatory frameworks, and the creation of industry-specific blockchain platforms to support its acceptance in the construction industry. Emphasizing emerging blockchain applications and the adoption challenges equips researchers and practitioners with the knowledge of these applications and their significance to construction practices.
Food supply chain (FSC) is an important part of the food supply chain. It is essential to establish food supply chains that are open to the public, accountable for their actions, and available in real time. The development of blockchain technology has led to an increase in the amount of data that is passed between customers and businesses, as well as the data that are passed between them. Blockchain technology is a new type of information technology that has the ability to be decentralized, safe, and trusted, which makes it an excellent option for storing sensitive data. The purpose of this study is to evaluate how blockchain with deep learning is used to find the quality evaluation of food supply chain technology. The use of BC has improved the accuracy of food traceability, while the utilization of Deep Random Forest (DRF) has boosted the efficacy of computing and shortened the reaction time. The research compares the quality evaluation system that is based on BC-DRF with some of the most common existing methods in terms of accuracy, reaction time, and sensitivity, when applied to a variety of block sizes.
A. Sasikumar, Logesh Ravi, Malathi Devarajan, V. Subramaniyaswamy · 6 authors
Industry 4.0 requires digital twins (DTs), a potential technology in the transition. By offering current operational statistics visualizations of physical assets, assisting in decision-making, and mitigating possible hazards in electronic manufacturing environments, DTs are essential to the improvement of distributed consumer electronics. DTs must also work with blockchain technology in dispersed consumer electronics systems to anticipate data privacy and access control. Unfortunately, the single failure of DT collaboration is caused by centralized attacks and data interoperability, authentication, scalability, and connectivity issues. This paper provides the secure architecture for the DTs’ collaboration in consumer electronic devices. Next, we have created an access control mechanism based on a consensus model that combines blockchain, digital twin, and real-time monitoring of consumer devices. The proposed framework uses blockchain technology to empower digital twin-based consumer electronic devices. Specifically, we created a collaborative blockchain architecture based on manufacturer, retailer, and device users, emphasizing a distributed chain code model and real-time access control. The experimental results show that the proposed system integration performs better than the baseline digital twin architecture.
Marisol García‐Valls, Alejandro M. Chirivella-Ciruelos
Integrating digital twin technology in Cyber-Physical Systems and Internet of Things can boost their intelligence. Given the current maturity of digital twin technology (yet in progress), improving the models that these systems use is typically achieved off-line, requiring the system to stop and reconfigure to run each new model version. In fact, most works use cloud back-ends to run heavy machine learning algorithms, imposing strict requirements on the data exchange between the physical system and the cloud. We address the online improvement of digital twin models in cyber–physical systems by supporting model refinement without disrupting nor stopping the normal operation of the system. This improves the dynamicity of the system that may turn into a major competitive advantage in a number of industrial scenarios. Precisely, we exploit the collaborative expectation of next generation cyber–physical systems based on highly-connected cells enabled by 5G and 6G networking; and on top of these, we design a shared space properly managed to deliver the needed temporal behaviour required by cyber–physical systems. For this, we present the design of CoTwin framework as a middleware that allows cells to collectively improve digital twin models seamlessly. CoTwin manages the interaction of cells with a blockchain-based collaborative space offering a built-in trusted storage model. We integrate neural network algorithms as they provide fast execution that meet the time-sensitivity requirements of cyber–physical systems. Our contribution is validated by means of its implementation and deployment on an actual blockchain network, and an exhaustive set of experiments to analyse the resulting overhead and temporal behaviour. Results show that CoTwin achieves stable execution times accross all its functional pieces; and it exhibits stable service time for large sets of cells.