The recent proliferation of blockchain-based decentralized applications (DApp) has catalyzed transformative advancements in distributed systems, with extensive deployments observed across financial, entertainment, media, and cybersecurity domains. These trustless architectures, characterized by their decentralized nature and elimination of third-party intermediaries, have garnered substantial institutional attention. Consequently, the escalating security challenges confronting DApp demand rigorous scholarly investigation. This study initiates with a systematic analysis of behavioral patterns derived from empirical DApp datasets, establishing foundational insights for subsequent methodological developments. The principal security vulnerabilities in Ethereum-based smart contracts developed via Solidity are then critically examined. Specifically, reentrancy vulnerability attacks are addressed by formally representing contract logic using highly expressive code fragments. This enables precise source code-level detection via bidirectional long short-term memory networks with attention mechanisms (BLSTM-ATT). Regarding privacy preservation challenges, contemporary solutions are evaluated through dual analytical lenses: identity privacy preservation and transaction anonymity enhancement, while proposing future research trajectories in cryptographic obfuscation techniques.
Recent account allocation studies in sharded blockchains are typically miner-driven, requiring miners to perform global optimizations for all accounts to enhance system-wide performance. This forces each miner to maintain a complete copy of the entire ledger, resulting in significant storage, communication, and computation overhead. In this work, we explore an alternative research direction by proposing Mosaic, the first client-driven framework for distributed, lightweight local optimization. Rather than relying on miners to allocate all accounts, Mosaic enables clients to independently execute a local algorithm to determine their residing shards. Clients can submit migration requests to a beacon chain when relocation is necessary. Mosaic naturally addresses key limitations of miner-driven approaches, including the lack of miner incentives and the significant overhead. While clients are flexible to adopt any algorithm for shard allocation, we design and implement a reference algorithm, Pilot, to guide them. Clients execute Pilot to maximize their own benefits, such as reduced transaction fees and confirmation latency. On a real-world Ethereum dataset, we implement and evaluate Pilot against state-of-the-art miner-driven global optimization solutions. The results demonstrate that Mosaic significantly enhances computational efficiency, achieving a four-order-of-magnitude reduction in computation time, with the reduced input data size from 1.44 GB to an average of 228.66 bytes per account. Despite these efficiency gains, Pilot introduces only about a 5% increase in the cross-shard ratio and maintains approximately 98% of the system throughput, demonstrating a minimal trade-off in overall effectiveness.
Blockchain-based smart contracts have garnered significant attention due to their potential to automate and enforce agreements in a decentralized and transparent manner. This abstract provides an overview of the implementation and security considerations associated with blockchain-based smart contracts. Smart contracts are self-executing contracts with predefined rules encoded on a blockchain, enabling automated and tamper-proof execution of contractual agreements. The implementation of smart contracts involves writing code in programming languages such as Solidity and deploying them on blockchain platforms such as Ethereum. However, the adoption of smart contracts introduces various security challenges, including vulnerabilities in the code, malicious actors, and regulatory compliance issues. This abstract discusses key security considerations for smart contracts, such as code auditing, formal verification, secure coding practices, and regulatory compliance. Additionally, it explores emerging trends and techniques for enhancing the security and resilience of blockchain-based smart contracts. By addressing these security considerations, blockchain-based smart contracts can realize their potential to revolutionize industries by enabling trustless and efficient execution of agreements while maintaining the integrity and confidentiality of transactions.
Organ donation plays a critical role in saving lives, yet traditional systems often struggle with issues such as lack of transparency, data tampering risks, and inefficient donor-recipient matching. This paper presents a blockchain-based decentralized application (DApp) designed to enhance the security, transparency, and efficiency of organ donation and transplantation processes. By leveraging smart contracts on a private Ethereum blockchain, the system automates key operations including donor registration, organ availability tracking, and recipient prioritization, all while maintaining the integrity of sensitive medical records. The use of a decentralized architecture ensures that data is tamper-proof and accessible only to authorized entities such as hospitals and regulatory bodies. A queue-based organ allocation algorithm is implemented to match recipients based on medical urgency and compatibility factors like blood type and organ requirements. The system is built using React.js for the frontend and Solidity for smart contract development, with Truffle and Ganache supporting local blockchain deployment. This approach not only secures sensitive health data but also improves the fairness and responsiveness of organ distribution. Keywords: Blockchain, Organ Donation, Smart Contracts, Decentralized Application, Healthcare Data Security, Organ Matching Algorithm, Private Ethereum Network
This paper provides the first empirical evidence of whether the introduction of US spot Bitcoin ETFs affected the returns and volatility of major cryptocurrencies. Using data from December 18, 2017 to March 15, 2024, we apply an event-study methodology within a GARCH-based framework. Our results reveal a significant effect of the introduction of spot Bitcoin ETFs on cryptocurrency returns and volatility. The analysis shows a positive impact for Bitcoin, Ethereum, and Litecoin spot price returns around the event date. The volatility of Bitcoin and Ripple spot markets decreased following the introduction of spot Bitcoin ETFs, which supports the stabilization hypothesis for these two cases. We also examine the volatility spillovers using a wavelet coherence approach, and reveal significant volatility spillovers from Grayscale Bitcoin ETF to Bitcoin futures and to a lesser extend to the Bitcoin spot market. Our findings enhance the limited understanding of the price discovery and functioning of the cryptocurrency markets, which could be useful for investors, regulators, and policymakers. • Study the impact of introduction of Spot Bitcoin ETFs on the cryptocurrency market. • Apply event study methodology within a GARCH framework. • Find a positive impact for Bitcoin, Ethereum, and Litecoin spot price returns. • Volatility of Bitcoin and Ripple decreased, supporting the stabilization hypothesis. • Wavelet coherence analysis reveals volatility spillovers from Bitcoin ETF to Bitcoin futures.
Muhammad Umar Farooq, Tanguy Cizain, Daniel Kaiser
The libp2p GossipSub protocol leverages a full-message mesh with a lower node degree and a more densely connected metadata-only (gossip) mesh. This combination allows an efficient dissemination of messages in unstructured peer-to-peer (P2P) networks. However, GossipSub needs to consider message size, which is crucial for the efficient operation of many applications, such as handling large Ethereum blocks. This paper proposes modifications to improve GossipSub's performance when transmitting large messages. We evaluate the proposed improvements using the shadow simulator. Our results show that the proposed improvements significantly enhance GossipSub's performance for large message transmissions in sizeable networks.
Anton Krivonogov, K. Starodubov, Alexander Prokofyev, Yuri Gromov
The article is devoted to the issue of sustainability of blockchain systems and their impact on the functioning of smart contracts that automate complex processes. An approach to determining the initial stability of a blockchain system is proposed, which includes the assessment of operational and technical parameters of the blockchain system using the method of direct expert evaluation. The proposed approach is tested on the example of the blockchain Ethereum.
Open access
Economic and Technological Systems Analysis
Digitalization and Economic Development in Agriculture
Traditional portfolio optimization techniques predominantly rely on the classical mean–variance framework introduced by Markowitz, which focuses on balancing expected returns against risk, typically measured by variance. However, in volatile and structur-ally unstable markets such as cryptocurrencies, this approach often fails to capture the full spectrum of uncertainty and diversification potential. This paper introduces an al-ternative methodology grounded in entropy, a fundamental concept in information theory that quantifies uncertainty and disorder. By incorporating entropy into the portfolio optimization process, we offer a more generalizable, distribution-free approach that enhances diversification and resilience.We develop and analyze three distinct en-tropy-based models: the maximum Shannon entropy model, the second-order entropy (Tsallis) model, and the maximum weighted Shannon entropy model. These formula-tions extend the traditional mean–variance approach by integrating nonlinear uncer-tainty measures, enabling a richer representation of investor preferences and asset in-terdependencies. Analytical solutions to the proposed models are derived using the method of Lagrange multipliers, ensuring mathematical rigor and interpretability.The proposed models are empirically validated using a portfolio composed of four leading cryptocurrencies—Bitcoin (BTC), Ethereum (ETH), Solana (SOL), and Binance Coin (BNB)—with market data from January to March 2025. The case studies demonstrate how entropy-based optimization leads to well-diversified portfolios, robust under market turbulence and heavy-tailed return distributions. Notably, the models facilitate dynamic adjustments in asset allocation in response to shifts in return–risk characteristics and entropy levels. This study contributes to the ongoing generalization of portfolio theory by positioning entropy as both a diversification enhancer and a structural risk measure. It provides theoretical insight, practical tools for asset allocation in high-volatility environments, and paves the way for future research in entropy-driven financial optimization frameworks.
Hong-Sheng Huang, Jason Y. Ho, Hao Chen, Hung–Min Sun
Poorly designed smart contracts are particularly vulnerable, as they may allow attackers to exploit weaknesses and steal the virtual currency they manage. In this study, we train a model using unsupervised learning to identify vulnerabilities in the Solidity source code of Ethereum smart contracts. To address the challenges associated with real-world smart contracts, our training data is derived from actual vulnerability samples obtained from datasets such as SmartBugs Curated and the SolidiFI Benchmark. These datasets enable us to develop a robust unsupervised static analysis method for detecting five specific vulnerabilities: Reentrancy, Access Control, Timestamp Dependency, tx.origin, and Unchecked Low-Level Calls. We employ clustering algorithms to identify outliers, which are subsequently classified as vulnerable smart contracts.
Tahrim Hossain, Sheikh Hassan, Faisal Haque Bappy, Muhammad Nur Yanhaona · 6 authors
The emergence of blockchain technology has revolutionized contract execution through the introduction of smart contracts. Ethereum, the leading blockchain platform, leverages smart contracts to power decentralized applications (DApps), enabling transparent and self-executing systems across various domains. While the immutability of smart contracts enhances security and trust, it also poses significant challenges for updates, defect resolution, and adaptation to changing requirements. Existing upgrade mechanisms are complex, resource-intensive, and costly in terms of gas consumption, often compromising security and limiting practical adoption. To address these challenges, we propose FlexiContracts+, a novel scheme that reimagines smart contracts by enabling secure, in-place upgrades on Ethereum while preserving historical data without relying on multiple contracts or extensive pre-deployment planning. FlexiContracts+ enhances security, simplifies development, reduces engineering overhead, and supports adaptable, expandable smart contracts. Comprehensive testing demonstrates that FlexiContracts+ achieves a practical balance between immutability and flexibility, advancing the capabilities of smart contract systems.
Blockchain networks provide a reliable trust anchor to decentralized applications (DApps) backed by smart contracts. The Ethereum ecosystem now encompasses most blockchain networks that provide compatible support for smart contracts code. Recently, many Ethereum Layer 2 (L2) rollup solutions emerged, meant to scale the base Layer 1 (L1) network, consequently decreasing transaction fees and diversifying the usage scenarios. Furthermore, the number of blockchain providers that offer access to the network infrastructure for both L1 and L2 continuously increases. A developer is faced with a multitude of deployment options and must weigh between the gains in costs and the losses in trust that are still an issue with L2. A decisive factor in this trade-off can be the use case itself, depending on its security requirements. Still, the evaluation of costs and performance cannot be ignored and should rely on a set of measurable metrics, although choosing the right metrics can be complicated. In this practical experience report, we explore the relevance of several such metrics in choosing between different providers and rollups. For this purpose, we perform evaluations for two use cases of DApps: a voting DApp with high security demands, suited for L1 deployment, and a cost-sensitive supply chain DApp, where L2 can be an option. We analyze a set of basic metrics by comparing these between two highly used access providers, Alchemy and Infura, for the L1 deployment case, and between two of the most popular rollups, Arbitrum One and OP Mainnet (Optimism), for the L2 deployment scenario.
Set reconciliation is a fundamental task in distributed systems, particularly in blockchain networks, where it enables synchronization of transaction pools among peers and facilitates block dissemination. Traditional set reconciliation schemes are either statistical, offering success probability as a function of communication overhead and symmetric difference size, or require parametrization and estimation of that size, which can be error-prone. We present CertainSync, a novel reconciliation framework that, to the best of our knowledge, is the first to guarantee successful set reconciliation without any parametrization or estimators. The framework is rateless and adapts to the unknown symmetric difference size. Reconciliation is guaranteed whenever the communication overhead reaches a lower bound derived from the symmetric difference size and universe size. Our framework builds on recent constructions of Invertible Bloom Lookup Tables (IBLTs), ensuring successful element listing as long as the number of elements is bounded. We provide a theoretical analysis proving the certainty of reconciliation for multiple constructions. Our approach is validated by simulations, showing the ability to synchronize sets with efficient communication costs while maintaining guarantees compared to baseline schemes. To further reduce overhead in large universes such as blockchain networks, CertainSync is extended with a universe reduction technique. We compare and validate this extension, UniverseReduceSync, against the basic framework using real Ethereum transaction hash data. Results show a trade-off between lower communication costs and maintaining guarantees, offering a comprehensive solution for diverse reconciliation scenarios.
Noor Ul Ain Afzal, Muhammad Kamran Abid, Muhammad Fuzail, Naeem Aslam · 5 authors
Ponzi schemes have surfaced on the Ethereum platform as blockchain technology continues to gain traction. Using smart contracts, these schemes, also referred to as smart Ponzi schemes, have caused significant financial losses and adverse effects. Byte code features, op code characteristics, account qualities, and smart contract transaction behavior are the main focus areas for current Ethereum smart Ponzi scheme detection techniques. However, these methods often do not record the behavioral features of the Ponzi scheme, resulting in high false alarm rates and poor identification accuracy. In this study, we provide the source P. Source P is a unique way of knowing intelligent Ponzi schemes on the Ethereum platform, passed by dataflow. Using the intelligent contract's source code as a function eliminates the difficulty of collecting data and extracting functions from available identification methods. In particular, we convert the code into statistical flow diagrams, apply educated models, and use code representations to create classification models for the detection of Ponzi schemes. Experimental results show that SourceP outperforms cutting-edge technology in terms of sustainability and effectiveness, achieving an F1 score of 92.4% and a recall of 90.1% in Ethereum's smart Ponzi schema detection. Ponzi, Blockchain, Source Code, Intelligent Contracts.
Effectively managing umbilical cord blood (CB) data involves implementing precise attention and strategic solutions within the healthcare supply chain, driving notable advancements in registration, donation, and preservation compared to regular adult blood. These challenges encompass moral, practical, legal, and technical limitations, fostering a conducive environment for innovative thinking and progress. To ensure a fair and efficient process that improves patient experience, sustainability of the donated cord blood and trust, it is essential to have a peer-to-peer (P2P) umbilical cord blood donation management system. In this work, we propose a framework using the ethereum blockchain to facilitate decentralized, secure, traceable, auditable, accountable, transparent, and reliable management of umbilical cord blood procurement. We showcase the intricacies of our system architecture and sequence diagram, effectively illustrating the operational principles of our groundbreaking proposed solution in information management. At the core of our endeavor is the development of smart contracts, which includes the meticulous processes of algorithm generation, precise implementation, comprehensive testing, and thorough validation. Our rigorous evaluation aims to establish the superior efficacy of our proposed solution through in-depth vulnerability analyses and comprehensive comparisons with existing alternatives.
The Solana blockchain was created by Anatoly Yakovenko of Solana Labs and was introduced in 2017, employing a novel transaction verification method. However, at the same time, the innovation process introduced some new security issues. The frequent security incidents in smart contracts have not only caused enormous economic losses, but also undermined the credit system based on the blockchain. The security and reliability of smart contracts have become a new focus of research both domestically and abroad. This paper studies the current status of security analysis of Solana by researching Solana smart contract security analysis tools. This paper systematically sorts out the vulnerabilities existing in Solana smart contracts and gives examples of some vulnerabilities, summarizes the principles of security analysis tools, and comprehensively summarizes and details the security analysis tools in Solana smart contracts. The data of Solana smart contract security analysis tools are collected and compared with Ethereum, and the differences are analyzed and some tools are selected for practical testing.
Decentralized finance (DeFi) lending platforms often require over-collateralization, excluding users without substantial crypto holdings. This paper introduces LFG, a novel DeFi protocol that leverages on-chain social profiles and tokenized reputation to assess creditworthiness. By integrating Ethereum smart contracts with Layer-2 solutions (Ethereum, Polygon), decentralized storage (IPFS) and zero-knowledge proofs, LFG enables undercollateralized loans while preserving privacy. We present a technical architecture, analyze security risks, and compare LFGs with traditional models using quantitative metrics. The results show a 40% reduction in collateral requirements for users with high reputation scores on the chain.
B. Vaidianathan, G. Regina Manicka Rajam, R.L. Shyja, M. Anitha
Know your customer (KYC) is the process of confirming user identities and assessing business risks from illicit activity. The manual KYC procedure is insecure, time-consuming, and expensive. With Blockchain technology's immutability, security, and decentralisation, such difficulties can be solved. KYC legal provide blockchain-based KYC verification by validating papers by a trustworthy network participant. This paper proposes an Ethereum-based Optimised KYC Blockchain system with symmetric AES encryption and LZ compression. The distributed ledger, cryptography, compression algorithm, and blockchain technologies make this system transparent, secure, efficient, and optimised. The suggested method uses Distributed Ledger Technology (Blockchain technology) to reduce KYC verification costs for institutions and speed up the process for clients. Our system is superior to conventional techniques since each customer only needs to be verified once, regardless of the number of institutions they want to link to. Since we use the DLT, we can securely communicate verification results with customers, boosting transparency. We created a Proof of Concept (POC) using the Ethereum API, websites as endpoints, and an android app as front office to prove its viability and efficacy. Overall, this strategy enhances customer experience, decreases costs, and boosts customer on boarding transparency.
As the development of Solidity contracts on Ethereum , more developers are reusing them on other compatible blockchains. However, developers may overlook the differences between the designs of the blockchain system, such as the Gas Mechanism and Consensus Protocol , leading to the same contracts on different blockchains not being able to achieve consistent execution as on Ethereum . This inconsistency reveals design flaws in reused contracts, exposing code smells that hinder code reusability, and we define this inconsistency as EVM-Inequivalent Code Smells . In this paper, we conducted the first empirical study to reveal the causes and characteristics of EVM-Inequivalent Code Smells . To ensure the identified smells reflect real developer concerns, we collected and analyzed 1,379 security audit reports and 326 Stack Overflow posts related to reused contracts on EVM-compatible blockchains, such as Binance Smart Chain (BSC) and Polygon . Using the open card sorting method, we defined six types of EVM-Inequivalent Code Smells . For automated detection, we developed a tool named EquivGuard . It employs static taint analysis to identify key paths from different patterns and uses symbolic execution to verify path reachability. Our analysis of 905,948 contracts across six major blockchains shows that EVM-Inequivalent Code Smells are widespread, with an average prevalence of 17.70%. While contracts with code smells do not necessarily lead to financial loss and attacks, their high prevalence and significant asset management underscore the potential threats of reusing these smelly Ethereum contracts. Thus, developers are advised to abandon Copy-and-Paste programming practices and detect EVM-Inequivalent Code Smells before reusing Ethereum contracts.
William J. Buchanan, Jamie Gilchrist, Keir Finlow-Bates
The ECDSA (Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm) is used in many blockchain networks for digital signatures. This includes the Bitcoin and the Ethereum blockchains. While it has good performance levels and as strong current security, it should be handled with care. This care typically relates to the usage of the nonce value which is used to create the signature. This paper outlines the methods that can be used to break ECDSA signatures, including revealed nonces, weak nonce choice, nonce reuse, two keys and shared nonces, and fault attack.
Atefeh Zareh Chahoki, Maurice Herlihy, Marco Roveri
Conthereum is a concurrent Ethereum solution for intra-block parallel transaction execution, enabling validators to utilize multi-core infrastructure and transform the sequential execution model of Ethereum into a parallel one. This shift significantly increases throughput and transactions per second (TPS), while ensuring conflict-free execution in both proposer and attestor modes and preserving execution order consistency in the attestor. At the heart of Conthereum is a novel, lightweight, high-performance scheduler inspired by the Flexible Job Shop Scheduling Problem (FJSS). We propose a custom greedy heuristic algorithm, along with its efficient implementation, that solves this formulation effectively and decisively outperforms existing scheduling methods in finding suboptimal solutions that satisfy the constraints, achieve minimal makespan, and maximize speedup in parallel execution. Additionally, Conthereum includes an offline phase that equips its real-time scheduler with a conflict analysis repository obtained through static analysis of smart contracts, identifying potentially conflicting functions using a pessimistic approach. Building on this novel scheduler and extensive conflict data, Conthereum outperforms existing concurrent intra-block solutions. Empirical evaluations show near-linear throughput gains with increasing computational power on standard 8-core machines. Although scalability deviates from linear with higher core counts and increased transaction conflicts, Conthereum still significantly improves upon the current sequential execution model and outperforms existing concurrent solutions under a wide range of conditions.
Marija Mikić, Mihajlo Srbakoski, Strahinja Praska
The integration of privacy-preserving transactions into public blockchains such as Ethereum remains a major challenge. The Stealth Address Protocol (SAP) provides recipient anonymity by generating unlinkable stealth addresses. Existing SAPs, such as the Dual-Key Stealth Address Protocol and the Curvy Protocol, have shown significant improvements in efficiency, but remain vulnerable to quantum attacks. Post-quantum SAPs based on lattice-based cryptography, such as the Module-LWE SAP, on the other hand, offer quantum resistance while achieving better performance. In this paper, we present a novel hybrid SAP that combines the Curvy protocol with the computational advantages of the Module-LWE technique while remaining Ethereum-friendly. In contrast to full post-quantum solutions, our approach does not provide quantum security, but achieves a significant speedup in scanning the ephemeral public key registry, about three times faster than the Curvy protocol. We present a detailed cryptographic construction of our protocol and compare its performance with existing solutions. Our results prove that this hybrid approach is the most efficient Ethereum-compatible SAP to date.
The prevalence of counterfeit medicines poses a significant threat to public health and safety, largely due to the opaque nature of traditional medicine supply chains. This research introduces a blockchain-based solution designed to bring transparency, traceability, and enhanced security to the medicine distribution process. The proposed system records every transaction in the supply chain, thereby preventing tampering and ensuring the authenticity of pharmaceutical products. Smart contracts are utilized to automate the verification and transfer of products between stakeholders such as manufacturers, distributors, and retailers. A decentralized application (DApp) was developed using React to facilitate user interaction, while the backend was implemented using the Truffle framework and connected to a local Ethereum blockchain via Ganache and Web3.js. The system supports real-time tracking of medicines and reduces dependency on intermediaries, which not only improves operational efficiency but also enhances the overall integrity of the supply chain. This blockchain-based approach represents a significant advancement over conventional methods by offering a transparent, tamper-resistant, and verifiable solution for medicine supply chain management. Keywords: Blockchain, Smart Contracts, Drug Counterfeiting, Supply Chain, Product Traceability, Security.
Anuj J. Ghom, Atharv N. Phuse, Harish S. Chopade, Mahesh A. Ghongade · 5 authors
Crowdfunding has emerged as a vital mechanism for raising funds, enabling startups, social causes, and creative projects to receive financial support from a broad audience.However, traditional crowdfunding platforms face challenges such as high transaction fees, lack of transparency, centralized control, and risks of fraud or fund mismanagement.To address these issues, we propose a Blockchain-Based Decentralized Crowdfunding Platform that leverages blockchain technology and smart contracts to enhance security, transparency, and trust in fundraising.By eliminating intermediaries, the system facilitates direct peer-to-peer transactions, ensuring immutability and automated fund distribution based on predefined conditions.This implementation utilizes the Ethereum blockchain to create an environment where fundraisers and backers can interact securely.The paper details the system architecture, smart contract design, security considerations, and a comparative analysis with traditional crowdfunding models.The results demonstrate improved transparency, reduced operational costs, and enhanced trust in the crowdfunding ecosystem.
The management of smart grids requires enhanced transparency and efficient optimization of energy transactions. While blockchain technology is widely used to ensure traceability and decentralization, existing solutions primarily focus on commercial aspects, often overlooking detailed monitoring of energy flows. This study proposes a hybrid blockchain model combining Ethereum and Hyperledger Fabric to integrate secure transaction execution with real-time energy flow tracking. The adopted approach involves identifying key components of decentralized energy management, conducting a comparative analysis of blockchain architectures, and performing experimental simulations to evaluate their performance in terms of latency, security, and scalability. Specific metrics, such as transaction throughput, block validation time, and energy data granularity, were utilized to assess the efficiency of the proposed model. The results demonstrate that Hyperledger Fabric excels in energy flow monitoring and auditability, whereas Ethereum optimizes transaction execution through its consensus mechanism and broad adoption. The integration of both technologies enables optimal complementarity, ensuring effective interoperability and significantly improving overall system transparency and efficiency. The proposed hybrid model establishes a scalable and resilient architecture that enhances coordination among network participants and optimizes energy governance. It fosters trust among stakeholders by ensuring the integrity and immutability of exchanges while enhancing the management of distributed energy resources. By integrating Ethereum and Hyperledger Fabric, this solution provides an innovative and applicable framework for decentralized energy infrastructures, optimizing transaction management, improving energy flow traceability, and reinforcing the resilience of smart grids against increasing demands for flexibility and sustainability.