In this paper, we present a detailed approach and implementation to prove Ethereum full node using recursive SNARK, distributed general GKR and Groth16. Our protocol's name is Sisu whose architecture is based on distributed Virgo in zkBridge with some major improvements. Besides proving signature aggregation, we provide solutions to 2 hard problems in proving Ethereum full node: 1) any public key is valid under previous beacon state and 2) all public keys are pairwise distinct. Our solution does not require worker-to-worker communication and therefore reduce total worker-to-worker network traffic from terabyte of data to zero compared to zkBridge. This makes our approach suitable for emerging distributed prover markets and more decentralized compared to zkBridge. Our design is highly parallelable and capable of running on GPU for most parts.
Yinqiu Liu, Hongyang Du, Dusit Niyato, Jiawen Kang · 7 authors
Mobile AI-Generated Content (AIGC) has achieved great attention in unleashing the power of generative AI and scaling the AIGC services. By employing numerous Mobile AIGC Service Providers (MASPs), ubiquitous and low-latency AIGC services for clients can be realized. Nonetheless, the interactions between clients and MASPs in public mobile networks, pertaining to three key mechanisms, namely MASP selection, payment scheme, and fee-ownership transfer, are unprotected. In this paper, we design the above mechanisms using a systematic approach and present the first blockchain to protect mobile AIGC, called ProSecutor. Specifically, by roll-up and layer-2 channels, ProSecutor forms a two-layer architecture, realizing tamper-proof data recording and atomic fee-ownership transfer with high resource efficiency. Then, we present the Objective-Subjective Service Assessment (OS^{2}A) framework, which effectively evaluates the AIGC services by fusing the objective service quality with the reputation-based subjective experience of the service outcome (i.e., AIGC outputs). Deploying OS^{2}A on ProSecutor, firstly, the MASP selection can be realized by sorting the reputation. Afterward, the contract theory is adopted to optimize the payment scheme and help clients avoid moral hazards in mobile networks. We implement the prototype of ProSecutor on BlockEmulator.Extensive experiments demonstrate that ProSecutor achieves 12.5x throughput and saves 67.5\% storage resources compared with BlockEmulator. Moreover, the effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed mechanisms are validated.
Most concurrent blockchain systems rely heavily on the Proof-of-Work (PoW) or Proof-of-Stake (PoS) mechanisms for decentralized consensus and security assurance. However, the substantial energy expenditure stemming from computationally intensive yet meaningless tasks has raised considerable concerns surrounding traditional PoW approaches, The PoS mechanism, while free of energy consumption, is subject to security and economic issues. Addressing these issues, the paradigm of Proof-of-Useful-Work (PoUW) seeks to employ challenges of practical significance as PoW, thereby imbuing energy consumption with tangible value. While previous efforts in Proof of Learning (PoL) explored the utilization of deep learning model training SGD tasks as PoUW challenges, recent research has revealed its vulnerabilities to adversarial attacks and the theoretical hardness in crafting a byzantine-secure PoL mechanism. In this paper, we introduce the concept of incentive-security that incentivizes rational provers to behave honestly for their best interest, bypassing the existing hardness to design a PoL mechanism with computational efficiency, a provable incentive-security guarantee and controllable difficulty. Particularly, our work is secure against two attacks, and also improves the computational overhead from $Θ(1)$ to $O(\frac{\log E}{E})$. Furthermore, while most recent research assumes trusted problem providers and verifiers, our design also guarantees frontend incentive-security even when problem providers are untrusted, and verifier incentive-security that bypasses the Verifier's Dilemma. By incorporating ML training into blockchain consensus mechanisms with provable guarantees, our research not only proposes an eco-friendly solution to blockchain systems, but also provides a proposal for a completely decentralized computing power market in the new AI age.
With the wide application of the Internet of Things (IoT), storing large amounts of IoT data and protecting data privacy has become a meaningful issue. In general, the access control mechanism is used to prevent illegal users from accessing private data. However, traditional data access control schemes face some non-ignorable problems, such as only supporting coarse-grained access control, the risk of centralization, and high trust issues. In this paper, an attribute-based data access control scheme using blockchain technology is proposed. To address these problems, attribute-based encryption (ABE) has become a promising solution for encrypted data access control. Firstly, we utilize blockchain technology to construct a decentralized access control scheme, which can grant data access with transparency and traceability. Furthermore, our scheme also guarantees the privacy of policies and attributes on the blockchain network. Secondly, we optimize an ABE scheme, which makes the size of system parameters smaller and improves the efficiency of algorithms. These optimizations enable our proposed scheme supports large attribute universe requirements in IoT environments. Thirdly, to prohibit attribute impersonation and attribute replay attacks, we design a challenge-response mechanism to verify the ownership of attributes. Finally, we evaluate the security and performance of the scheme. And comparisons with other related schemes show the advantages of our proposed scheme. Compared to existing schemes, our scheme has more comprehensive advantages, such as supporting a large universe, full security, expressive policy, and policy hiding.
In a multiparty signing protocol, also known as a threshold signature scheme, the private signing key is shared amongst a set of parties and only a quorum of those parties can generate a signature. Research on multiparty signing has been growing in popularity recently due to its application to cryptocurrencies. Most work has focused on reducing the number of rounds to two, and as a result: (a) are not fully simulatable in the sense of MPC real/ideal security definitions, and/or (b) are not secure under concurrent composition, and/or (c) utilize non-standard assumptions of different types in their proofs of security. In this paper, we describe a simple three-round multiparty protocol for Schnorr signatures that is secure for any number of corrupted parties; i.e., in the setting of a dishonest majority. The protocol is fully simulatable, secure under concurrent composition, and proven secure in the standard model or random-oracle model (depending on the instantiations of the commitment and zero-knowledge primitives). The protocol realizes an ideal Schnorr signing functionality with perfect security in the ideal commitment and zero-knowledge hybrid model (and thus the only assumptions needed are for realizing these functionalities). In our presentation, we do not assume that all parties begin with the message to be signed, the identities of the participating parties and a unique common session identifier, since this is often not the case in practice. Rather, the parties achieve consensus on these parameters as the protocol progresses.
Verifiable encryption (VE) is a protocol where one can provide assurance that an encrypted plaintext satisfies certain properties, or relations. It is an important building block in cryptography with many useful applications, such as key escrow, group signatures, optimistic fair exchange, and others. However, the majority of previous VE schemes are restricted to instantiation with specific public-key encryption schemes or relations. In this work, we propose a novel framework that realizes VE protocols using zero-knowledge proof systems based on the MPC-in-the-head paradigm (Ishai et al. STOC 2007). Our generic compiler can turn a large class of zero-knowledge proofs into secure VE protocols for any secure public-key encryption scheme with the undeniability property, a notion that essentially guarantees binding of encryption when used as a commitment scheme. Our framework is versatile: because the circuit proven by the MPC-in-the-head prover is decoupled from a complex encryption function, the work of the prover is focused on proving the encrypted data satisfies the relation, not the proof of plaintext knowledge. Hence, our approach allows for instantiation with various combinations of properties about the encrypted data and encryption functions. We then consider concrete applications, to demonstrate the efficiency of our framework, by first giving a new approach and implementation to verifiably encrypt discrete logarithms in any prime order group more efficiently than was previously known. Then we give the first practical verifiable encryption scheme for AES keys with post-quantum security, along with an implementation and benchmarks.
Blockchain and zero-knowledge (ZK) proof techniques have advanced greatly in recent years, largely spurred by cryptocurrency development. They enable decentralized coordination of, and proofs of computational integrity in, the execution of privacy-preserving protocols.
The virtue of data forgetting has become a substantial demand in the digital era. Once online content has served its purpose, the concept of forgetting arises to ensure that data remains private between data owners and service providers. Despite significant advancements in supporting data forgetting through approaches like access heuristics, elastic expiration times, and manual revocation, the existing research falls short in addressing the demand for a multi-level forgetting structure that can cater to diverse audience-based expiration requirements while considering additional criteria. To the best of our knowledge, no prior works have investigated this gap, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive solution that can effectively accommodate the varying expiration needs of different audience groups. In this paper, we introduce a novel disjunctive multi-level forgetting scheme designed to meet the aforementioned demand for data forgetting. Our scheme introduces unique expiration periods for the encrypted data the service provider stores, called levels. Users are grouped into different levels based on priorities assigned by the data owners. Each level corresponds to a specific expiration threshold, enabling designated user groups to access the content within its validity period before it is forgotten. This approach enables selective data forgetting for one group while enabling concurrent access and retention for other user groups until the stipulated expiration period elapses. To achieve this, we have devised a cutting-edge system that integrates a hierarchical and dynamic scheme utilizing a key decay for managing expiration periods. Moreover, we introduce an innovative approach that harnesses smart contracts on a local Ethereum blockchain to enforce regulations and streamline the secure and efficient expiration and deletion of data. Finally, we thoroughly evaluate our proposed scheme, focusing on decay sensitivity, computational complexity, and rigorous security analysis.
Open access
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
Francesco Buccafurri, Vincenzo De Angelis, Roberto Nardone
The interest in Self-Sovereign Identity (SSI) in research, industry, and governments is rapidly increasing. SSI is a paradigm where users hold their identity and credentials issued by authorized entities. SSI is revolutionizing the concept of digital identity enabling the definition of a trust framework wherein a service provider (verifier) validates the claims presented by a user (holder) for accessing services. However, current SSI solutions primarily focus on the presentation and verification of claims, overlooking a dual aspect: ensuring that the verifier is authorized to access the holder's claims. Addressing this gap, this paper introduces an innovative SSI-based solution that integrates decentralized wallets with Ciphertext-Policy Attribute-Based Proxy Re-Encryption (CP-ABPRE). This combination effectively addresses the challenge of verifier authorization. Our solution, implemented on the Ethereum platform, enhances accountability by notarizing key operations through a smart contract. The paper also offers a prototype demonstrating the practicality of the proposed approach. Furthermore, it provides an extensive evaluation of the solution's performance, emphasizing its feasibility and efficiency in real-world applications.
With the rapid growth of the Internet of Things (IoT), massive terminal devices are connected to the network, generating a large amount of IoT data. The reliable sharing of IoT data is crucial for fields such as smart home and healthcare, as it promotes the intelligence of the IoT and provides faster problem solutions. Traditional data sharing schemes usually rely on a trusted centralized server to achieve each attempted access from users to data, which faces serious challenges of a single point of failure, low reliability, and an opaque access process in current IoT environments. To address these disadvantages, we propose a secure and dynamic access control scheme for the IoT, named SDACS, which enables data owners to achieve decentralized and fine-grained access control in an auditable and reliable way. For access control, attribute-based control (ABAC), Hyperledger Fabric, and interplanetary file system (IPFS) were used, with four kinds of access control contracts deployed on blockchain to coordinate and implement access policies. Additionally, a lightweight, certificateless authentication protocol was proposed to minimize the disclosure of identity information and ensure the double-layer protection of data through secure off-chain identity authentication and message transmission. The experimental and theoretical analysis demonstrated that our scheme can maintain high throughput while achieving high security and stability in IoT data security sharing scenarios.
Kushal Patil, Asit Khobragade, Aditya Awati, Bharati Nikose
This paper presents the Blockchain-Based Decentralised File Sharing System (BBDFS),also called DecentraShare a complete, production-ready system that solves thethree fundamental weaknesses of cloud-based le sharing: lack of privacy, absence oftamper evidence, and susceptibility to censorship. The system integrates three tech-nologies: the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) for peer-to-peer distributed storage,Ethereum-compatible smart contracts deployed on the Polygon Proof-of-Stake net-work for programmable access control, and AES-256-GCM symmetric encryptionperformed entirely inside the user's browser via the Web Crypto API.When a le is uploaded, it is encrypted locally before leaving the user's device the backend server never receives plaintext content. A content identier (CID)returned by IPFS is anchored on the blockchain alongside a SHA-256 integrity hash.Three Solidity 0.8.19 smart contracts FileRegistry.sol, AccessControl.sol,and IntegrityLedger.sol manage ownership, per-wallet permission grants andrevocations, and a chained integrity audit log respectively. A stateless Node.js 20/ Express 4.18 backend exposes 19 REST API endpoints, while real-time Server-Sent Events (SSE) deliver access notications to recipients within a median of 18milliseconds.Performance evaluation over 1,500 independent le-transfer trials demonstrates amedian upload latency of 2.58 seconds for 1MB payloads, on-chain conrmationwithin 2.1 seconds on Polygon, and 99.97% data retrievability under normal operat-ing conditions. Gas optimisation reduced smart contract deployment cost by 46.7%over naive reference implementations. Comparative analysis against Storj, Filecoin,Swarm, and AWS S3 conrms that BBDFS is the only evaluated system simultane-ously providing end-to-end encryption, on-chain access control, and tamper-evidentauditing.
Alaa Haddad, Mohamed Hadi Habaebi, Elfatih A. A. Elsheikh, Md. Rafiqul Islam · 6 authors
To secure sensitive medical records in the healthcare clouds, this paper proposes an End-to-End Encryption (E2EE) to enhance a patient-centric blockchain-based system for electronic health record (EHR) management. The suggested system with a focus on the patient enables individuals to oversee their medical records within various involved parties by authorizing or withdrawing permission for access to their records. Utilizing the inter-planetary file system (IPFS) for record storage is chosen due to its decentralized nature and its ability to guarantee the unchangeability of records. Then an E2EE enhancement maintains the medical data integrity using dual level-Hybrid encryption: symmetric Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) and asymmetric Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) cryptographic techniques. The proposed system is implemented using the Ethereum blockchain system for EHR data sharing and integration utilizing a web-based interface for the patient and all users to initiate the EHR sharing transactions over the IPFS cloud. The proposed system performance is evaluated in a working system prototype. For different file sizes between 512 KB to 100 MB, the performance metrics used to evaluate the proposed system were the time consumed for generating key, encryption, and decryption. The results demonstrate the proposed system's superiority over other cutting-edge systems and its practical ability to share secure health data in cloud environments.
The recent MIP*=RE theorem of Ji, Natarajan, Vidick, Wright, and Yuen shows that the complexity class MIP* of multiprover proof systems with entangled provers contains all recursively enumerable languages. Prior work of Grilo, Slofstra, and Yuen [FOCS '19] further shows (via a technique called simulatable codes) that every language in MIP* has a perfect zero knowledge (PZK) MIP* protocol. The MIP*=RE theorem uses two-prover one-round proof systems, and hence such systems are complete for MIP*. However, the construction in Grilo, Slofstra, and Yuen uses six provers, and there is no obvious way to get perfect zero knowledge with two provers via simulatable codes. This leads to a natural question: are there two-prover PZK-MIP* protocols for all of MIP*? In this paper, we show that every language in MIP* has a two-prover one-round PZK-MIP* protocol, answering the question in the affirmative. For the proof, we use a new method based on a key consequence of the MIP*=RE theorem, which is that every MIP* protocol can be turned into a family of boolean constraint system (BCS) nonlocal games. This makes it possible to work with MIP* protocols as boolean constraint systems, and in particular allows us to use a variant of a construction due to Dwork, Feige, Kilian, Naor, and Safra [Crypto '92] which gives a classical MIP protocol for 3SAT with perfect zero knowledge. To show quantum soundness of this classical construction, we develop a toolkit for analyzing quantum soundness of reductions between BCS games, which we expect to be useful more broadly. This toolkit also applies to commuting operator strategies, and our argument shows that every language with a commuting operator BCS protocol has a two prover PZK commuting operator protocol.
Internet applications rely on Secure Socket Layer (SSL)/Transport Security Layer (TSL) certifications to establish secure communication. However, the centralized nature of certificate authorities (CAs) poses a risk, as malicious third parties could exploit the CA to issue fake certificates to malicious web servers, potentially compromising the privacy and integrity of user data. In this paper, we demonstrate how the utilization of decentralized certificate verification with blockchain technology can effectively address and mitigate such attacks. We present a decentralized public key infrastructure (PKI) based on a distributed trust model, e.g., Web of Trust (WoT) and blockchain technologies, to overcome vulnerabilities like single points of failure and to prevent tampering with existing certificates. In addition, our infrastructure establishes a trusted key-ring network that decouples the authentication process from CAs in order to enhance secure certificate issuance and accelerate the revocation process. Furthermore, as a proof of concept, we present the implementation of our proposed system in the Ethereum blockchain, confirming that the proposed framework meets the five identified requirements. Our experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed system in practice, albeit with additional overhead compared to conventional PKIs.
Decentralized Federated Learning (FL) offers a paradigm where independent entities collaboratively train a machine learning model while preserving the privacy of their datasets. Integrating blockchain technology into decentralized FL frameworks is critical to establishing the trust necessary for user participation. However, existing FL systems using blockchain often struggle with scalability, latency, and privacy issues, particularly in permissionless blockchain contexts. This paper proposes OpenFL, a novel, collateral-backed reputation system implemented on the Ethereum blockchain. This system aims to foster trust among participants in a decentralized FL environment. We present a fully autonomous smart contract platform specifically tailored to facilitate FL processes among anonymous users. Furthermore, we address potential security concerns by detailing our strategies to mitigate various attack vectors. To validate our system’s efficacy, we conducted experiments on the Ethereum Ropsten testnet using the MNIST and CIFAR-10 datasets. Our findings demonstrate OpenFL’s capability to overcome the inherent limitations of permissionless blockchains while highlighting the significance of open-access protocols in this context. OpenFL can potentially broaden the participant base in trust-sensitive applications by reducing entry barriers, thus substantially contributing to decentralized machine learning.
Decentralized Identifiers have recently expanded into Internet of Things devices and are crucial in securing users' digital identities and data. However, Decentralized Identifiers face challenges in scenarios necessitating authority delegation and anonymity, such as when dealing with legal guardianship for minors, device loss or damage, and specific medical contexts involving patient information. This paper aims to strengthen data sovereignty within the Decentralized Identifier system by implementing a secure authority delegation and anonymity scheme. It suggests optimizing verifiable presentations by utilizing a sequential aggregate signature, a Non-Interactive Zero-Knowledge Proof, and a Merkle tree to prevent against linkage and Sybil attacks while facilitating delegation. This strategy mitigates security risks related to delegation and anonymity, efficiently reduces the computational and verification efforts for signatures, and reduces the size of verifiable presentations by about 1.2 to 2 times.
A ride-sharing system provides many advantages. It reduces energy consumption. Moreover, it mitigates traffic congestion. Furthermore, it provides benefits to drivers and passengers in that they share travel costs (gas, toll ticket). Ride-sharing has been getting very popular since the COVID-19 pandemic. Since COVID-19 is very contagious and spread by infected people via coughs, sneezes, or talking, people avoid using public transportation to get the disease. People prefer to travel with a few people to protect their health. To prevent people from getting the disease and to have the advantages of a ride-sharing system, we introduce a ride-sharing system in which a driver only travels with a passenger for each event. Traveling with only one person provides advantages to both the driver and passenger. The driver (passenger) not only shares the cost of the trip but also reduces the risk of getting or spreading the disease. This paper proposes a smart-contract-based ride-sharing system that uses a $Vickrey$ (second highest bid) auction mechanism during a pandemic to determine the passenger. The system provides a decentralized, transparent, trackable, verifiable, and secure ride-sharing with the help of consortium blockchain. Using smart contracts in the system allows users’ bids to be transparent and verifiable. Furthermore, the proposed system provides a secure and lightweight mechanism to protect users' (drivers and passengers) travel data (locations and cost of travel). Their travel data for each event is going to be unlinkable.
In virtual power plants, diverse business scenarios involving user data, such as queries, transactions, and sharing, pose significant privacy risks. Traditional attribute-based encryption (ABE) methods, while supporting fine-grained access, fall short of fully protecting user privacy as they require attribute input, leading to potential data leaks. Addressing these limitations, our research introduces a novel privacy protection scheme using zero-knowledge proof and distributed attribute-based encryption (DABE). This method innovatively employs Merkel trees for aggregating user attributes and constructing commitments for zero-knowledge proof verification, ensuring that user attributes and access policies remain confidential. Our solution not only enhances privacy but also fortifies security against man-in-the-middle and replay attacks, offering attribute indistinguishability and tamper resistance. A comparative performance analysis demonstrates that our approach outperforms existing methods in efficiency, reducing time, cost, and space requirements. These advancements mark a significant step forward in ensuring robust user privacy and data security in virtual power plants.
While centralized servers pose a risk of being a single point of failure, decentralized approaches like blockchain offer a compelling solution by implementing a consensus mechanism among multiple entities. Merging distributed computing with cryptographic techniques, decentralized technologies introduce a novel computing paradigm. Blockchain ensures secure, transparent, and tamper-proof data management by validating and recording transactions via consensus across network nodes. Federated Learning (FL), as a distributed machine learning framework, enables participants to collaboratively train models while safeguarding data privacy by avoiding direct raw data exchange. Despite the growing interest in decentralized methods, their application in FL remains underexplored. This paper presents a thorough investigation into Blockchain-based FL (BCFL), spotlighting the synergy between blockchain's security features and FL's privacy-preserving model training capabilities. First, we present the taxonomy of BCFL from three aspects, including decentralized, separate networks, and reputation-based architectures. Then, we summarize the general architecture of BCFL systems, providing a comprehensive perspective on FL architectures informed by blockchain. Afterward, we analyze the application of BCFL in healthcare, IoT, and other privacy-sensitive areas. Finally, we identify future research directions of BCFL.
Pseudonyms are widely used in Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems (C-ITS) to protect the location privacy of vehicles. However, the unlinkability nature of pseudonyms also enables Sybil attacks, where a malicious vehicle can pretend to be multiple vehicles at the same time. In this paper, we propose a novel protocol called zero-knowledge Proof of Distinct Identity (zk-PoDI,) which allows a vehicle to prove that it is not the owner of another pseudonym in the local area, without revealing its actual identity. Zk-PoDI is based on the Diophantine equation and zk-SNARK, and does not rely on any specific pseudonym design or infrastructure assistance. We show that zk-PoDI satisfies all the requirements for a practical Sybil-resistance pseudonym system, and it has low latency, adjustable difficulty, moderate computation overhead, and negligible communication cost. We also discuss the future work of implementing and evaluating zk-PoDI in a realistic city-scale simulation environment.
Xi Lin, Heyang Cao, Feng-Hao Liu, Zhedong Wang · 5 authors
Abstract Zero-knowledge succinct non-interactive arguments of knowledge (zk-SNARKs) are cryptographic protocols that offer efficient and privacy-preserving means of verifying NP language relations and have drawn considerable attention for their appealing applications, e.g., verifiable computation and anonymous payment protocol. Compared with the pre-quantum case, the practicability of this primitive in the post-quantum setting is still unsatisfactory, especially for the space complexity. To tackle this issue, this work seeks to enhance the efficiency and compactness of lattice-based zk-SNARKs, including proof length and common reference string (CRS) length. In this paper, we develop the framework of square span program-based SNARKs and design new zk-SNARKs over cyclotomic rings. Compared with previous works, our construction is without parallel repetition and achieves shorter proof and CRS lengths than previous lattice-based zk-SNARK schemes. Particularly, the proof length of our scheme is around $$23.3\%$$ <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mrow> <mml:mn>23.3</mml:mn> <mml:mo>%</mml:mo> </mml:mrow> </mml:math> smaller than the recent shortest lattice-based zk-SNARKs by Ishai et al. (in: Proceedings of the 2021 ACM SIGSAC conference on computer and communications security, pp 212–234, 2021), and the CRS length is $$3.6\times$$ <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mrow> <mml:mn>3.6</mml:mn> <mml:mo>×</mml:mo> </mml:mrow> </mml:math> smaller. Our constructions follow the framework of Gennaro et al. (in: Proceedings of the 2018 ACM SIGSAC conference on computer and communications security, pp 556–573, 2018), and adapt it to the ring setting by slightly modifying the knowledge assumptions. We develop concretely small constructions by using module-switching and key-switching procedures in a novel way.
We construct perfect zero-knowledge probabilistically checkable proofs (PZK-PCPs) for every language in #P. This is the first construction of a PZK-PCP for any language outside BPP. Furthermore, unlike previous constructions of (statistical) zero-knowledge PCPs, our construction simultaneously achieves non-adaptivity and zero knowledge against arbitrary (adaptive) polynomial-time malicious verifiers. Our construction consists of a novel masked sumcheck PCP, which uses the combinatorial nullstellen- satz to obtain antisymmetric structure within the hypercube and randomness outside of it. To prove zero knowledge, we introduce the notion of locally simulatable encodings: randomised encodings in which every local view of the encoding can be efficiently sampled given a local view of the message. We show that the code arising from the sumcheck protocol (the Reed–Muller code augmented with subcube sums) admits a locally simulatable encoding. This reduces the algebraic problem of simulating our masked sumcheck to a combinatorial property of antisymmetric functions.
The wide application of smart contracts allows industry companies to implement some complex distributed collaborative businesses, which involve the calculation of complex functions, such as matrix operations. However, complex functions such as matrix operations are difficult to implement on Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM)-based smart contract platforms due to their distributed security environment limitations. Existing off-chain methods often result in a significant reduction in contract execution efficiency, thus a platform software development kit interface implementation method has become a feasible way to reduce overheads, but this method cannot verify operation correctness and may leak sensitive user data. To solve the above problems, we propose a verifiable EVM-based smart contract cross-language implementation scheme for complex operations, especially matrix operations, which can guarantee operation correctness and user privacy while ensuring computational efficiency. In this scheme, a verifiable interaction process is designed to verify the computation process and results, and a matrix blinding technology is introduced to protect sensitive user data in the calculation process. The security analysis and performance tests show that the proposed scheme can satisfy the correctness and privacy of the cross-language implementation of smart contracts at a small additional efficiency cost.
Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) are digital assets recorded on the blockchain, providing cryptographic proof of ownership over digital or physical items. Although Solana has only begun to gain popularity in recent years, its NFT market has seen substantial transaction volumes. In this paper, we conduct the first systematic research on the characteristics of Solana NFTs from two perspectives: longitudinal measurement and wash trading security audit. We gathered 132,736 Solana NFT from Solscan and analyzed the sales data within these collections. Investigating users' economic activity and NFT owner information reveals that the top users in Solana NFT are skewed toward a higher distribution of purchases. Subsequently, we employ the Local Outlier Factor algorithm to conduct a wash trading audit on 2,175 popular Solana NFTs. We discovered that 138 NFT pools are involved in wash trading, with 8 of these NFTs having a wash trading rate exceeding 50%. Fortunately, none of these NFTs have been entirely washed out.
Open access
3 source records
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
User Authentication and Security Systems
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques