The Blockchain is an emerging technology that is used in various applications for data security and trustworthiness. In the case of a public Blockchain, the data cannot be edited or deleted. In the case of a consortium and private Blockchain, the data can be edited or deleted based on the assigned permission, and the data privacy can be maintained. Blockchain's smart contract provides security to stored data, but it is vulnerable to various security threats. Smart contracts still suffer from different variabilities like distributed denial of service attacks (DDoS), 51% vulnerability attacks, double-spending problems, and mining Pool attacks. The smart contract, run on a Blockchain framework, is the logical contract between two or more anonymous people without involving a third party. Hyperledger and Ethereum are two important frameworks that support the development of smart contracts using Blockchain technology. This paper has tried to analyze the security issues of smart contracts developed on the Ethereum framework. An application of class scheduling management and student attendance management has been designed to validate and generate a smart contract. Received: 31 May 2025 | Revised: 4 August 2025 | Accepted: 29 August 2025 Conflicts of Interest The author declares that he has no conflicts of interest to this work. Data Availability Statement The data used in this article are virtual data to implement and to establish the algorithm. It is available in GitHub at https://github.com/ashisgitup/e-learning-Blockchain.git. Author Contribution Statement Ashis Kumar Samanta: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Writing — original draft, Writing — review & editing, Visualization, Project administration.
In this article, we carry out a comprehensive comparative legal analysis of the criminal policy in the field of cryptocurrency confiscation in Russia, the European Union, and the United States. The relevance of this research is determined by the rapid growth of crimes involving crypto assets (money laundering, cybercrimes, and drug trafficking) and the lack of effective mechanisms for their final confiscation and implementation in Russia, which undermines the efforts of law enforcement agencies. We aim to identify effective models of cryptocurrency confiscation based on a comparative analysis of legislation and practice in leading jurisdictions and, on this basis, to develop recommendations for improving the Russian legal framework. The methodology includes a comparative legal analysis of regulatory acts (Russian Criminal Procedure Code, EU Directive 2014/42/EU, US Code), a formal legal method, an analysis of judicial practice (Russia, USA), and doctrinal sources. The key findings can be summarized as follows: (1) the USA enjoys the most advanced system, where the U.S. Marshals Service (USMS) actively uses private exchanges to convert confiscated assets; (2) the EU has established a strong legal framework (5/6AMLD, Directive 2014/42/EU); however, implementation practices here vary among member states, combining government-owned storage and outsourced sales through licensed platforms; (3) in the Russian Federation, despite the practice of seizure and arrest of crypto assets and legislative initiatives, the legal mechanism for their confiscation and sale is lacking, making court decisions unenforceable. In order to overcome this gap in Russia, it is necessary to urgently legislate cryptocurrency as property for the purposes of confiscation in the Criminal Procedure Code of the Russian Federation, grant the Federal Service for Judicial Enforcement of the Russian Federation the authority to sell through licensed platforms, as well as to develop expert potential. Our study extends the current knowledge by detailing the technological aspects of confiscation in the EU and the USA and proposes specific ways to modernize the criminal policy of the Russian Federation.
René Dávila, Everardo Bárcenas, Rocío Aldeco-Pérez
Formal verification entails testing software to ensure it operates as specified. Smart contracts are self-executing contracts with the terms of the agreement directly written into lines of code. They run on blockchain platforms and automatically enforce and execute the terms of an agreement when meeting predefined conditions. However, Smart Contracts, as software models, often contain notable errors in their operation or specifications. This observation prompts us to conduct a focused study examining related works published across various sources. These publications detail specifications, verification tools, and relevant experiments. Subsequently, this survey proposes an alternative formal verification based on description logic.
General Background: Blockchain-based smart contracts have revolutionized global transactions by enabling automatic, transparent, and decentralized execution of agreements. Specific Background: Despite their efficiency, these digital instruments challenge traditional private international law, particularly regarding jurisdiction, applicable law, and enforceability in cross-border contexts. Knowledge Gap: Existing legal systems, especially in the Middle East, lack comprehensive frameworks to address decentralized contracting and blockchain-based evidence. Aims: This study critically examines the intersection between smart contracts and conflict of laws in digital environments, focusing on Iraq’s legal framework and regional comparison with the EU and the US. Results: The analysis reveals that while the EU has developed coherent regulatory models such as MiCA and the Data Act, and several US states have recognized smart contracts’ validity, Iraq’s Civil Code of 1951 remains inadequate to regulate automated digital agreements. Novelty: The paper proposes a unified legal model integrating UNCITRAL’s 2024 Model Law on Automated Contracting, regional cooperation through the Arab League and GCC, and legislative reforms in Iraq to recognize blockchain evidence. Implications: Implementing such a framework would harmonize technological progress with legal certainty, enhance cross-border trust, and position Iraq and the Middle East within the global digital economy.Highlight : Analyzes the intersection of smart contracts and conflict of laws in digital space. Examines Iraq’s outdated legal framework amid rapid technological change. Suggests adopting international models and regional cooperation for legal reform. Keywords : Smart Contracts, Blockchain, Conflict of Laws, Private International Law, Jurisdiction, Iraq.
This study examines the philosophical-legal foundations of smart contracts through the lens of transforming concepts of autonomy and determinism. The semantic gap between the natural language of law and the formal language of programming is investigated. The ontological status of smart contracts as hybrid sociotechnical phenomena is analyzed. A conceptual vision of "executable law" is proposed for understanding new forms of algorithmic normativity in the digital era.
Smart contracts have emerged as a transformative force in contract law, leveraging blockchain technology to automate transactions and reduce reliance on human intermediaries. However, their widespread adoption is hindered by significant legal challenges, particularly in determining liability for transaction failures. This Note examines the accountability problems inherent in smart contracts, focusing on the critical role of oracles—third-party entities that feed external data into blockchain-based agreements. While existing scholarship explores the theoretical foundations and potential applications of smart contracts, this Note shifts focus to liability allocation and proposes a novel framework: default oracle liability. Under this proposal, oracles bear primary responsibility for transaction errors arising from inaccurate data sourcing or validation failures. If oracles demonstrate that they functioned correctly, liability shifts to smart contract developers, who are responsible for ensuring secure and error-free code. By clarifying accountability, this framework incentivizes higher standards for data accuracy and software integrity, ultimately fostering a more reliable and legally-viable environment for smart contracts to operate.
This article presents a literature review of various solutions and analyses concerning the use of blockchains and/or smart contracts to manage aspects of intellectual property assets. These include proper registration to establish prior art, ownership traceability, copy control, payment automation, contract execution, and related functions. The analyses focus on the application of these technologies to copyright, industrial property, sui generis protection, and technology transfer agreements. The methodology comprised a keyword search in scientific databases, followed by a qualitative content analysis to extract the most relevant points from each document. Overall, the findings indicate that most proposed applications address copyright-related issues, followed by patent-related uses. In the majority of proposed solutions, blockchain registration is restricted to information about the asset, without necessarily storing the asset itself on the blockchain.
The paper explores the prospects for utilizing cryptocurrencies (digital currencies) within the context of foreign economic activity and analyzes the key legal challenges in this area. Currently, the use of digital currencies in cross-border transactions stands out as one of the most effective mechanisms for countering economic sanctions imposed by unfriendly states. In pursuit of these objectives, the Russian Federation has implemented an experimental legal framework for transactions involving cryptocurrencies. Furthermore, it has been established that cross-border settlements in cryptocurrencies were practiced prior to the initiation of this experimental regime, often in defiance of the existing prohibition on accepting digital currencies as consideration. It has been established that the state must ensure the simultaneous implementation of two public interests, which do not contradict each other: upholding legality and countering economic sanctions. This objective is to be achieved through amendments to legislation that introduce liability for violations of the aforementioned prohibition. Terminological inaccuracies within the digital currency legislation have been identified, specifically the inability to incorporate stablecoins with centralized issuers—which have become the primary instrument for cross-border settlements—into the legal concept of “digital currency.” The author substantiated the rationale for conducting a controlled experiment on the use of digital currencies in cross-border settlements.
This chapter explores the intersection between the deterministic execution of smart contracts and the unpredictable nature of delay, a legal phenomenon historically embedded in human discretion and normative flexibility. While smart contracts promise automated, trustless enforcement, they reveal critical vulnerabilities when confronted with unforeseen disruptions, particularly in the context of technical rigidity and legislative gaps. The discussion navigates through the architectural challenges of code literalism, the oracle dependency problem, and the doctrinal limitations of classical contract law in adjudicating delays devoid of intent or culpability. It also examines emerging hybrid legal-technical frameworks, including regulatory innovations in the EU and UK, and the conceptual development of Lex Cryptographica. Ultimately, the chapter proposes a recalibration of contract theory and practice, advocating for a pluralistic approach that integrates technical resilience with normative safeguards to manage delay in a digitally autonomous age.
Rad analizira digitalnu transformaciju u industriji osiguranja s posebnim naglaskom na primjenu blockchain tehnologije i pametnih ugovora. Istražuje kako telemetrija i oracle tehnologija omogućuju prikupljanje i korištenje podataka iz stvarnog svijeta za dinamično oblikovanje ugovora o osiguranju, što vodi razvoju novih modela poput mikroosiguranja, peer-to-peer osiguranja i osiguranja temeljenog na stvarnoj uporabi. Rad također razmatra pravne aspekte pametnih ugovora, njihovu pravnu valjanost, ograničenja u interpretaciji, te izazove u zaštiti privatnosti i regulatorne izazove koje donosi njihova primjena unutar EU i Republike Hrvatske. Poseban naglasak stavlja se na važnost stvaranja jasnih i prilagodljivih pravnih rješenja koja će omogućiti odgovornu i učinkovitu integraciju novih tehnologija u osigurateljnu praksu.
Godfrey Murairidzi Gotora, Eva Tsitsi Chigodo, Godfrey Benjamin Zulu, Mfula Eunice
Since the synthesis and evolution of the coding and blockchain technology with the self-executing commands, there is a sudden shift to the smart contract consumption patterns. In the global virtual commerce this phenomenon has been enormously increasingly day by day. This has been so based on the distinct, clear and strong advantageous characteristics mainly lies in security, transparency and its unique way of its decentralized automation nature. A large scope of transactions of this technology’s usage has been implemented in virtual and argumentative reality where codes create a lot of services such as games and commercial services amongst end users basically with no lawyers involved. However, despite its wide adoption intensifies, it renders no immune from the potential risks and uncertainty issues like any other software-based platforms. In generic terms every industry needs a regulatory way, which oversee or set red lines of boundaries in the form of structures, organizations and policies. In this context the code written and protocols which are executed automatically in systems aught also to be vetted in legal judiciary systems.
The legal status of mining in Russia remains one of the most controversial issues. The main difficulty is related to the lack of a clear approach to the legal regulation of this process, which is the creation of new units of cryptocurrency. Nevertheless, the regulatory legal acts adopted last year emphasize the relevance and importance of the analyzed topic. The article examines the problems of qualifying crimes related to obtaining cryptocurrency, including mining. The legal status of cryptocurrencies in Russian and international legislation is analyzed, identifying gaps in regulation and enforcement. Special attention is given to the qualification of illegal mining as a form of unlawful business, as well as crimes related to electricity theft, fraud, extortion, and money laundering. The study explores relevant court rulings and evidentiary issues in criminal cases involving digital assets. International experiences in cryptocurrency regulation are reviewed, and suggestions for improving Russian legislation are provided. Key directions for the development of criminal law policy concerning cryptocurrency-related crimes are highlighted.
This study aims to demonstrate the role of explicit and implicit will in determining the law applicable to smart contracts. Traditional attribution criteria have become incapable of determining the law of digital contracts. This requires a more effective legal system that is compatible with the nature of this type of digital dispute, ensuring legal security and protecting the legal positions of the parties to the contract. This study was conducted using an analytical approach, analyzing relevant legal texts in national and international laws, in addition to a comparative legal approach to study comparative laws in the Anglo-American and Latin American systems, to demonstrate the role of these systems in establishing rules for smart contract operations through digital platforms. The study revealed that the explicit will is the best traditional solution available in legal systems for determining the law applicable to smart contracts. While implicit intention has diminished the importance of the unified elements of a smart contract across all contracts, rendering it incapable of establishing a method for determining contract law. The virtual and decentralized nature of these contracts has led many legislators to refrain from addressing them, given the difficulty of creating a legal system in light of the infrastructure that requires development to accommodate contractual processes in this type of contract. Legal development in the field of smart contracts and artificial intelligence is necessary through the study of technical aspects by specialists to develop a substantive law that addresses the legal issues that arise when implementing smart contracts similar to electronic contracts. This law also addresses the issue of determining the law applicable to the international nature of this type of contract, or through developing attribution criteria that align with the nature of virtual disputes.
Purpose. The purpose of this article is to conduct a philosophical-legal analysis of the determinism of smart contract execution and its impact on fundamental legal categories through the lens of practical philosophy. This analysis aims to elucidate the transformation of the nature of legal certainty in the context of algorithmic automation.Design / Method / Approach. The study employs an interdisciplinary approach, integrating analytical philosophy of law with elements of phenomenological analysis of temporality and critical examination of formal systems. The methodological foundation consists of theories of legal certainty, concepts of practical reason, and approaches from the philosophy of technology to the analysis of algorithmic regulation.Findings. The study identifies a contradiction between the algorithmic logic of procedural justice and human needs for substantive justice. It is established that execution determinism ensures formal predictability at the expense of contextual sensitivity and adaptability. A distinction is substantiated between the certainty of code and legal certainty as qualitatively distinct phenomena. It is demonstrated that the inherent incompleteness of formal systems precludes the complete algorithmic formalization of legal relations.Theoretical implications. The research results advance philosophical-legal theory by analyzing the limits of legal formalization and conceptualizing the temporal transformation of legal processes, thereby enriching the understanding of the relationship between determinism and justice in the digital era.Practical implications. The findings provide a theoretical foundation for developing hybrid legal systems that combine algorithmic efficiency with the preservation of room for human judgment, as well as for formulating principles for the responsible integration of deterministic systems into legal practice.Originality / Value. The article proposes a philosophical-legal analysis of the determinism of smart contract execution through the lens of practical philosophy. It substantiates the transformation of the nature of legal certainty in the context of algorithmic automation as a qualitatively new phenomenon, necessitating a rethinking of traditional legal categories.Research limitations / Future research. Further research is needed on the transformation of legal subjectivity in the context of shifting autonomy from the level of interpretation to the level of designing legal systems, as well as on the analysis of new forms of legal agency in hybrid human-machine systems.Paper type. Theoretical.
The introduction of smart contracts into the social sphere and their active use requires a detailed analysis. The classification of such contracts and the description of their features will make it possible to specify the legal regulation in the field of the use of these electronic systems. The purpose of the study is to examine the features of smart contracts and propose a more complete (expanded) classification of them for various reasons. The research is based on methods of comparative analysis, synthesis, interpretation of legal norms and a comprehensive analysis of works on the chosen topic by both domestic authors and foreign specialists. The work resulted in additional grounds on which smart contracts can be categorized. The characteristics of smart contracts are also described: efficiency, security, lack of centralization, transparency, peer-to-peer, automation, and protection against fraud. Conclusion: smart contracts can be further classified depending on the environment in which they are executed (the blockchain technologies used), depending on their retribution for the parties to the transaction.
Against the background of the digital economy, the conventional matching strategy of supply and demand is unable to meet the requirements of matching supply and demand industrial interconnection with digitalization as the core element. To solve the trust problem of supply and demand matching contract of digital industrial interconnection, a decision-making framework of supply and demand matching of industrial interconnection based on smart contract is proposed. Based on the massive resource data, a resource characteristic attribute matrix is constructed, and the Fuzzy C-Means algorithm is used to classify and reduce the dimension of massive resource data. Based on the attribute expectation of supply and demand, the objective function with maximum satisfaction is created to realise bidirectional matching. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed method is demonstrated by an example.
The integration of smart contracts and artificial intelligence (AI) into family law represents a major advancement in the digital transformation of legal procedures for marriage contracts. The blockchain technology enables smart contracts to function autonomously as self-executing agreements that deliver benefits through automated processes and transparent systems, and secure transactions. AI integration with these agreements enables real-time adjustments through adaptability because it allows automatic changes based on financial, legal, or personal circumstances. The implementation of family law through these agreements creates essential legal problems regarding their enforceability and jurisdictional differences, and their ability to handle marital relationship dynamics. The paper studies the basis of smart contracts alongside their potential AI-enhanced adaptability and automation capabilities. It also studies the Serbian marriage contract legal regulation. The research investigates the legal obstacles and jurisdictional problems that emerge when these technologies are used in family law by making comparisons with other civil law jurisdictions. The article also evaluates important ethical issues related to algorithmic bias and privacy concerns before it concludes by analysing the advantages and disadvantages of AI-enhanced smart contracts for marriage contracts in Serbia.
This research analyzes the impact of blockchain technology in the field of electronic evidence. It starts from a hypothesis of assuming that blockchain technology will have a significant impact on both public administrations and society in general, which will mean changing the way personal electronic information is managed by putting control in the hands of individual citizens rather than centralized servers or platforms. The article also analyzes regulatory efforts in the European Union to adapt to the changing landscape of electronic evidence, including the proposed eIDAS 2 regulation, which seeks to establish autonomous digital identities based on blockchain technology and then focuses on the procedural treatment of blockchain as a means and source of evidence and differentiates between this technology as a means of storing electronic evidence and as a mechanism to preserve and secure this type of evidence. Likewise, the text concludes by emphasizing the potential of blockchain technology in the context of Web3, where decentralized and interoperable systems are expected to play a fundamental role in the Spanish and European administration of justice.
In recent years, cutting-edge technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain, and digital twin (DT), have revolutionized the healthcare sector by enhancing public health and treatment quality through precise diagnosis, preventive measures, and real-time care capabilities. Despite these advancements, the massive amount of generated biomedical data puts substantial challenges associated with information security, privacy, and scalability. Applying blockchain in healthcare-based digital twins ensures data integrity, immutability, consistency, and security, making it a critical component in addressing these challenges. Federated learning (FL) has also emerged as a promising AI technique to enhance privacy and enable decentralized data processing. This paper investigates the integration of digital twin concepts with blockchain and FL in the healthcare domain, focusing on their architecture and applications. It also explores platforms and solutions that leverage these technologies for secure and scalable medical implementations. A case study on federated learning for electroencephalogram (EEG) signal classification is presented, demonstrating its potential as a diagnostic tool for brain activity analysis and neurological disorder detection. Finally, we highlight the key challenges, emerging opportunities, and future directions in advancing healthcare digital twins with blockchain and federated learning, paving the way for a more intelligent, secure, and privacy-preserving medical ecosystem.
The article examines the integration of blockchain technology and smart contracts into the sphere of civil law relations, focusing on legal consequences and emerging problems related to their application. As these technologies continue to transform various sectors, including finance, supply chain management, and the real estate market, the need for appropriate legal regulation is becoming increasingly urgent. The purpose of this article is to comprehensively analyze the use of blockchain and smart contracts in civil law relations and to study legal issues, current judicial practice, and various regulatory approaches in different jurisdictions. The research is based on an interdisciplinary approach that combines elements of legal analysis, comparative law, as well as the study of modern digital technologies. By examining the intersection of these advanced technologies with established legal principles, the author aims to illuminate the evolving landscape of digital agreements and their consequences for civil law in the 21st century. Assessing the importance of international cooperation for the formation of cross-border legal standards, as well as the prospects and challenges of further development, this study allows for an understanding of the emerging legal landscape of blockchain technologies in the civil law sphere.
The article is devoted to the analysis of the problem of the development of the cryptocurrency market, the markets of their circulation and the prospect of using them as a means of payment in international settlements of the Russian Federation in the context of increasing sanctions pressure. The author analyzes a group of social and economic factors that led to the emergence of cryptocurrencies. Special attention is paid to the disclosure of their technological essence of cryptocurrencies and their rewarding nature. The article examines in detail the history of the development of cryptocurrencies themselves, their circulation markets, the business essence of this means of payment and the path of its entry into the global economic system. The paper compares the European, Russian and Chinese ways of regulating the cryptocurrency market, the consequences, causes and features of the use of various methods of regulating the crypto market for national economies and their impact on the cost and demand of cryptocurrencies. Special attention is paid to the study of the problem of the practical use of cryptocurrencies on the territory of the Russian Federation and in its international settlements both at the state level and on the scale of individual enterprises. The author evaluates the possible prospects for the development of the Russian national cryptocurrency, and the use of bitcoin as an alternative means of domestic and international settlements of the Russian Federation. It is this aspect of the development of cryptocurrencies that is particularly important for the Russian market, which is in dire need of a means of payment that will help circumvent Western sanctions. The paper also reflects the problem of the attractiveness of the cryptocurrency market for criminal transactions and the difficulty of countering illegal transactions without seriously compromising the attractiveness of cryptocurrencies as a means of payment.