Stephan Rabanser, Ali Shahin Shamsabadi, Olive Franzese, Xiao Wang ¡ 6 authors
Cautious predictions -- where a machine learning model abstains when uncertain -- are crucial for limiting harmful errors in safety-critical applications. In this work, we identify a novel threat: a dishonest institution can exploit these mechanisms to discriminate or unjustly deny services under the guise of uncertainty. We demonstrate the practicality of this threat by introducing an uncertainty-inducing attack called Mirage, which deliberately reduces confidence in targeted input regions, thereby covertly disadvantaging specific individuals. At the same time, Mirage maintains high predictive performance across all data points. To counter this threat, we propose Confidential Guardian, a framework that analyzes calibration metrics on a reference dataset to detect artificially suppressed confidence. Additionally, it employs zero-knowledge proofs of verified inference to ensure that reported confidence scores genuinely originate from the deployed model. This prevents the provider from fabricating arbitrary model confidence values while protecting the model's proprietary details. Our results confirm that Confidential Guardian effectively prevents the misuse of cautious predictions, providing verifiable assurances that abstention reflects genuine model uncertainty rather than malicious intent.
Blockchain technology, with its inherent security, transparency, and immutability, presents a novel approach to addressing critical challenges in public health. This paper explores the potential of blockchain to revolutionize data management, enhance disease surveillance, and empower communities in public health initiatives. We examine how blockchain can secure sensitive health data, facilitate interoperability among disparate systems, and enable decentralized data sharing for research and interventions. Furthermore, we discuss the applications of blockchain in supply chain management for pharmaceuticals, vaccine distribution, and the creation of secure digital identities for individuals. By leveraging blockchain's distributed ledger technology, we can foster trust, improve data integrity, and promote community engagement in public health, ultimately leading to more effective and equitable health outcomes.
Abstract: Algebraic geometry offers a powerful and elegant mathematical framework for the design and analysis of modern cryptographic protocols. This research paper investigates the application of algebraic geometry methodsâsuch as elliptic curves, abelian varieties, and projective algebraic structuresâin enhancing the security, efficiency, and scalability of cryptographic systems. By bridging advanced algebraic structures with cryptographic primitives, the study demonstrates how algebraic geometry enables the construction of secure public key protocols, zero-knowledge proofs, and post-quantum resilient schemes. Through theoretical modeling, performance benchmarking, and comparative analysis with classical cryptographic approaches, the paper illustrates the advantages of algebraic geometry in terms of computational hardness assumptions, structural integrity, and potential for innovation in secure communications. The findings contribute to the evolving landscape of cryptography by positioning algebraic geometry as a foundational tool in next-generation cryptographic protocol design. Keywords: algebraic geometry, cryptographic protocols, elliptic curves, public key cryptography, post-quantum cryptography, projective varieties, zero-knowledge proofs, secure communication, mathematical cryptography, abelian varieties
TetraUnified v2.0 presents a fully revised, academically aligned research framework integrating three experimental components: Tetrahedral Key Exchange (TKE):Exploratory key exchange mechanism based on recursive geometric projections. Recursive Tesseract Hashing (RTH):Hyperdimensional hashing model using 16-axis Clifford projections and recursive entropy mixing. Quantum Isoca-Dodecahedral Lattice Encryption (QIDL):Conceptual encoding model for representing plaintext within dynamic polyhedral phase lattices. This version restructures the system into a coherent research-grade framework, emphasizing mathematical clarity, reproducibility, consistent notation, and proper cryptographic disclaimers.No security guarantees are claimed and no component should be used in production systems.All structures are intended strictly for experimental simulation, prototyping, and conceptual evaluation. Purpose of This Release Version 2.0 was developed to achieve three objectives: Remove speculative, metaphorical, or narrative content from earlier drafts and establish a formal academic tone. Strengthen mathematical structure and notation, including explicit operator definitions and theoremâproof formulations. Position the system as a technical R&D testbed, rather than a security product or operational cryptographic protocol. This release supersedes all previous versions.Earlier manuscripts are preserved only as historical development notes. Key Improvements in v2.0 1. Formal Mathematical Structures Includes new theoremâproof style sections addressing: TKE reconstruction consistency RTH entropy evolution under recursion QIDL transformation intractability (as a conceptual model) Defined core operators: Projection (đŻ) Modulation (f) Reconstruction (đ) Polyhedral rotation (đ_{I,D}) Sealing (đŽ) Geometric embeddings now use clearly stated synthetic Clifford bases. 2. Cryptographic Positioning TKE, RTH, and QIDL are explicitly described as experimental, unverified, not secure, and not production-ready. No hardness assumptions are claimed. All constructs are positioned as alternative simulation models inspired by geometric/topological methods. 3. Distributed Systems & Navigation Concepts Introduces a conceptual framework for: phase-based synchronization inertial alignment without external timing sources distributed state coordination under high latency resilience to environmental drift or partial network partitions 4. Comparison with Existing Quantum Programming Includes a revised comparison table contrasting: NISQ-era quantum programming TetraUnifiedâs hyperdimensional simulation models Highlights key architectural differences without implying superiority. 5. Expanded Application Sections Updated application discussions for TKE, RTH, and QIDL covering: distributed identity experiments mesh communication models ledger integrity prototyping inertial navigation research off-world / high-latency environments multi-agent swarm coordination recursive lineage tracking for AI pods All applications are strictly conceptual research pathways, not operational deployments. Version Philosophy TetraUnified v2.0 establishes the framework as: an academic-style experimental cryptography model a research environment for hyperdimensional and geometric transformations an R&D prototype for studying non-linear distributed coordination a computational sandbox for exploring alternative post-quantum architectures No practical security, correctness, or adversarial resistance should be inferred.Formal verification and cryptanalysis remain open areas for future work. Included Artifacts This release includes: the revised LaTeX manuscript (PDF) updated mathematical definitions for TKE, RTH, QIDL reference diagrams and basis definitions example code structures (if present in repository) reproducibility metadata and version history Notes on Previous Versions Earlier versions contained exploratory and speculative material.Version 2.0 replaces these with a rigorous mathematical and systems-engineering structure. Per Zenodo policies, earlier versions remain visible but represent developmental prototypes only.The DOI series now resolves to v2.0 as the authoritative technical edition. Intended Use TetraUnified v2.0 is intended for: researchers exploring geometric or topological cryptography models distributed systems experimentation verifiable computation and XR/digital-twin state modeling conceptual post-quantum architecture studies academic and peer review simulation, prototyping, and reproducibility analysis This work is not intended for operational cryptography, production deployment, or security-critical environments. Citation MacDonald, M. (2025).TetraUnified v2.0 â Experimental Framework for Hyperdimensional Cryptography, Recursive Hashing, and Distributed State Models.Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17759222
This paper introduces the Cartesian Merkle Tree, a deterministic data structure that combines the properties of a Binary Search Tree, a Heap, and a Merkle tree. The Cartesian Merkle Tree supports insertions, updates, and removals of elements in $O(\log n)$ time, requires $n$ space, and enables membership and non-membership proofs via Merkle-based authentication paths. This structure is particularly suitable for zero-knowledge applications, blockchain systems, and other protocols that require efficient and verifiable data structures.
Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs) are a rapidly growing technique for privacy-preserving and verifiable computation.ZKPs enable one party (a prover: P) to prove to another (a verifier: V) that a statement is true or correct without revealing any additional information.This powerful capability has led to ZKPs being applied and proposed for application in blockchain technologies, verifiable machine learning, and electronic voting.However, ZKPs have yet to see widespread, ubiquitous adoption due to the exceptionally high computational complexity of the proving process.Naturally, there has been recent work to accelerate ZKP primitives and protocols using GPUs and ASICs.However, the protocols considered so far face one of two challenges: they require a trusted setup for each new application or generate large proofs with high verification costs, limiting their applicability in scenarios with numerous verifiers or strict verification time constraints.HyperPlonk is a state-of-theart ZKP protocol that supports both one-time, universal setup and small proof sizes/verification costs expected by publicly verifiable, consensus-based systems (e.g., blockchain).While HyperPlonk's setup and verifier properties are highly desirable, the proving phase is costly.A HyperPlonk prover must compute on large bitwidths (e.g., 255-381b) and polynomials (e.g., of degree 2 24 ), employs computationally (e.g., MSM) and bandwidth (e.g., SumCheck) intensive kernels, and the complete protocol comprises many steps, each constituting distinct kernels.We present an accelerator, zkSpeed, to
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is profoundly transforming cryptography by significantly enhancing cryptanalysis techniques and informing innovative cryptographic design approaches. This survey reviews recent advancements in applying deep learning methods to side-channel and differential fault analyses, demonstrating substantial improvements over traditional methods in attack efficiency, accuracy, and resilience. Additionally, it highlights breakthroughs such as neural differential cryptanalysis, which expand classical cryptanalytic boundaries. In cryptographic design, Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) have successfully automated the creation of high-quality cryptographic primitives, particularly S-boxes. Furthermore, AI shows promise in post-quantum cryptography (PQC) by uncovering potential vulnerabilities and optimizing cryptographic parameters. Despite these advancements, challenges persist regarding data dependency, model generalization, and interpretability. Future research directions emphasize enhancing AI model explainability, creating standardized benchmarks, and integrating AI with emerging technologies such as quantum computing and zero-knowledge proofs.
Open access
Cryptographic Implementations and Security
Chaos-based Image/Signal Encryption
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
This is the NIST Threshold Call, calling for public submissions of multi-party threshold schemes, and other related crypto-systems, to support the United Statesâ National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in gathering a public body of reference materials unadvanced cryptography. In a threshold scheme, a reference cryptographic primitive (e.g., signing, encryption, decryption, key generation) is computed in a distributed manner, while its private/secret key is or becomes secret-shared across various parties. The threshold schemes submitted in reply to this call will be interchangeable with a reference no threshold primitive of interest, in the sense that their outputs can be used interchangeably in a subsequent operation. The primitives of interest are organized into various categories, across two classes: Class N, for selected NIST-specified primitives; and Class S, for special primitives that are not specified by NIST but are threshold friendly or have useful functional features. The scope of Class S also includes fully homomorphic encryption, zero-knowledge proofs, and auxiliary gadgets. This document specifies submission phases, and the requirements for submitting a package, including a technical specification, a reference implementation, and a report on experimental evaluation. A subsequent phase of public analysis will support the elaboration of a characterization report, which may help assess new interests beyond the cryptographic techniques currently standardized by NIST, and may include recommendations for future processes.
Zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) are widely applied in digital economies, such as cryptocurrencies and smart contracts, for establishing trust and privacy between untrusted parties. Classical ZKPs rely on computational assumptions and are vulnerable to quantum attacks. While a recent advance suggests quantum-sound symmetric relativistic ZKPs for the graph three-coloring problem without computational assumptions, the high round complexity, which leads to unachievable runtime and overall randomness cost, renders them impractical for real-life deployment. To overcome this, we develop an efficient asymmetric relativistic ZKP protocol using relativistic bit commitments, and prove its quantum soundness by relating it to the nonlocal Clauser-Horne-Shimony-Holt (CHSH) game. Our protocol achieves a linear relationship between the round complexity and the number of edges, and thus significantly improves practical feasibility. In addition, we implement a proof-of-principle experiment which completes all interactive rounds in about 0.22 seconds and requires an overall randomness cost of 430.81 MB. Our work illustrates the powerful potential of integrating special relativity with quantum theory in trustless cryptography, paving the way for robust applications against quantum attacks in distrustful Internet environments. Zero-knowledge proofs can protect privacy online, but almost all current methods are vulnerable to quantum attacks. Here, the authors report an efficient relativistic protocol and experiment that resists quantum attacks and greatly reduces runtime, randomness cost and communication rounds.
Collision-resistant cryptographic hash functions (CRHs) are crucial for security, particularly for message authentication in Zero-knowledge Proof (ZKP) applications. However, traditional CRHs like SHA-2 or SHA-3, while optimized for CPUs, generate large circuits, rendering them inefficient in the ZK domain. Conversely, ZK-friendly hashes are designed for circuit efficiency but struggle on conventional hardware, often orders of magnitude slower than standard hashes due to their reliance on expensive finite field arithmetic. To bridge this performance gap, we present HashEmAll, a novel collection of FPGA-based realizations for three prominent ZK-friendly hashes: Griffin, Rescue-Prime, and Reinforced Concrete. Each offers distinct optimization profiles, with both area-optimized and latency-optimized variants available, allowing users to tailor hardware selection to specific application constraints regarding resource utilization and performance. Our extensive evaluation shows that latency-optimized HashEmAll designs outperform CPU implementations by at least $10 \times$, with the leading design achieving a $23 \times$ speedup. These gains are coupled with lower power consumption and compatibility with accessible FPGAs. Importantly, the highly parallel and pipelined architecture of HashEmAll enables significantly better practical scaling than CPU-based approaches towards building real-world ZKP applications, such as data commitments with Merkle Trees, by mitigating the hashing bottleneck for large trees. This highlights the suitability of HashEmAll for real-world ZKP applications involving large-scale data authentication. We also highlight the ability to translate the HashEmAll methodology to various ZK-friendly hash functions and different field sizes.
Physical unclonable function (PUF) is a critical hardware primitive that provides unique identities for authenticating a large number of devices in the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT). Most existing PUF-based schemes face challenge-response pair (CRP) leakage during machine-learning attack. Some studies that use hardware or time-consuming cryptographic operations to protect the PUF responses are expensive and unsuitable for existing IIoT devices. To address these issues, a lightweight and anonymous PUF-based authentication scheme is proposed for resource-constrained IIoTs. Using elliptic curve cryptography and zero-knowledge proof, a lightweight blinding mechanism is designed in the proposed scheme that prevents explicit CRP leakage and ensures anonymity. In addition, the authenticated keys are random with forward and backward secrecy. Moreover, the security of the proposed scheme is demonstrated using a random oracle model. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed scheme is notably more efficient and practical for resource-constrained devices compared to other related schemes.
Open access
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
Increasing attention to digital identity and self-sovereign identity (SSI) is gaining momentum. SSI brings various benefits to natural persons, such as owning controls; conversely, digital identity systems in the real world require Sybil-resistance to comply with anti-money laundering (AML) and other needs. CanDID by Maram et al. proposed that decentralized digital identity systems may achieve Sybil-resistance and preserve privacy by utilizing multi-party computation (MPC), assuming a distributed committee of trusted nodes. Pass et al. proposed the formal abstraction of attested execution secure processors (AESPs) while equipping hardware-assisted security in mobile devices has become the norm. We first describe our proposal to utilize AESPs for building secure Sybil-resistant SSI systems, the architecture with a set of system protocols$\Pi ^{{\mathcal {G}}_{\mathtt {att}}}$, which brings drastic flexibility and efficiency compared to existing systems. In addition, we propose a novel scheme that enables users (holders) to request verifiers to verify their credentials without AESPs, and it further achieves unlinkability among credentials created for public verification. Our scheme introduces a simplified format for computed claims and commitment-based anonymous identifiers. We also describe a technique to utilize zero-knowledge membership proofs, in particular, âOne-Out-of-Many Proofsâ$\Sigma $-protocol by Groth and Kohlweiss, which can prove the existence of an expected credential without identifying it. Along with other techniques, such as utilizing the BBS+ signature scheme, we demonstrate how our scheme can achieve its goals with the extended anonymous and Sybil-resistant SSI system protocols$\Pi ^{{\mathcal {G}}_{\mathtt {att}}+}$. Entitling unlinkability among derived credentials in the anonymous Sybil-resistant SSI results in proper privacy preservation.
Joel Poncha Lemayian, Ghyslain Gagnon, Kaiwen Zhang, Pascal Giard
ABSTRACT Cryptocurrency blockchain networks safeguard digital assets using cryptographic keys, with wallets playing a critical role in generating, storing, and managing these keys. Wallets, typically categorized as hot and cold, offer varying degrees of security and convenience. However, they are generally softwareâbased applications running on microcontrollers. Consequently, they are vulnerable to malware and sideâchannel attacks, allowing perpetrators to extract private keys by targeting critical algorithms, such as ECC, which processes private keys to generate public keys and authorize transactions. To address these issues, this work presents EthVault, the first hardware architecture for an Ethereum hierarchically deterministic cold wallet, featuring hardware implementations of key algorithms for secure key generation. Also, an ECC architecture resilient to sideâchannel and timing attacks is proposed. Moreover, an architecture of the child key derivation function, a fundamental component of cryptocurrency wallets, is proposed. The design minimizes resource usage, meeting market demand for small, portable cryptocurrency wallets. FPGA implementation results validate the feasibility of the proposed approach. The ECC architecture exhibits uniform execution behavior across varying inputs, while the complete design utilizes only 27%, 7%, and 6% of LUTs, registers, and RAM blocks, respectively, on a Xilinx Zynq UltraScale+ FPGA.
With the rapid development of the digital economy and the Internet of Things, identity authentication in resource-constrained environments faces challenges such as low efficiency and inadequate privacy protection. Addressing the high computational and communication overhead of traditional RSA and ECC authentication mechanisms, this study proposes an efficient identity authentication mechanism (AC-ZKP) based on algebraic curves and non-interactive zero-knowledge proofs (NIZK). This mechanism leverages algebraic curve group operations to achieve lightweight key management and employs zero-knowledge proofs to ensure information concealment and anti-forgery during identity verification. The paper conducts a systematic study across four dimensions: system modeling, algorithm design, security analysis, and performance evaluation. Experimental results demonstrate that while maintaining 128-bit security strength, the AC-ZKP mechanism reduces authentication latency by approximately 44% and communication overhead by about 40%. It also exhibits strong scalability and resistance to attacks, significantly outperforming traditional ECC schemes. These findings provide a viable solution for lightweight, high-security identity authentication in IoT, edge computing, and cross-border data exchange environments.
Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) represent a unique form of digital asset stored on a blockchain, encompassing a wide array of assets from digital art to real-world commodities. While NFTs offer robust security through decentralization and smart contract enforcement, they are not impervious to cyber threats. Traditionally, NFTs are transferred over blockchain platforms via smart contracts. The primary objective of this study is to introduce a cryptographic framework that integrates an advanced encryption algorithm layer to fortify NFT image transfers, reinforcing content protection in an evolving digital ecosystem. Various pixel-based encryption algorithms have been implemented using image processing techniques and compared considering their levels of encryption and execution times. Based on the comparison, an advanced encryption algorithm has been devised with an added level of encryption and fast execution time. The proposed encryption algorithm leverages alpha composition with a randomly generated image obtained using a Generative Adversarial Network (GAN). The GAN-generated image is infused with Gaussian noise to deter decryption by unauthorized algorithms, thereby enhancing resilience against cryptanalysis. The encrypted image metadata would be transferred through both on-chain (i.e., blockchain) and off-chain methods to facilitate efficiency and security during NFT transfers. The image decryption protocol mandates the new owner/receiver of NFT to possess the correct private identification, transaction key, and off-chain data, ensuring exclusive access while automatically revoking ownership from the previous holder upon successful transfer. This approach not only secures the transfer process but also minimizes the risk of data leaks, as intermediaries should not have access to the complete metadata. This cryptographic approach not only safeguards digital assets but also aligns with the futuristic vision of secure transactions in the metaverse and Web 3.0. The experimental analysis based on the security level and encryption time based on multiple encryption algorithms justifies the benefits of the proposed method.
Aleksandra Szczegielniak-Rekiel, Krzysztof Kanciak, Jan M. Kelner
This study explored the diverse applications of zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) in next-generation network technologies, particularly in fifth-generation (5G) and emerging sixth-generation (6G) systems. ZKPs are cryptographic methods that enable one party to prove the validity of a statement without revealing the statement itself, thereby offering significant advantages in privacy-preserving authentication and authorization. Given these properties, ZKPs have garnered increasing research attention in contexts such as the Internet of Things (IoT), vehicular communications, and telecommunication protocols. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to provide a comprehensive, taxonomy-driven analysis of ZKP applications specifically designed for 5G and beyond. We categorize existing solutions according to the type of application, the underlying cryptographic technology, maturity level, and relevance to 6G. Furthermore, this paper examines how ZKPs can help mitigate various cybersecurity threats, such as distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks, man-in-the-middle attacks, and location tracking. We also assess recent advancements in ZKP acceleration techniques and highlight the key implementation challenges. Finally, this study outlines promising directions for future research in this rapidly evolving field.
Open access
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Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
What will computer security look like in the year 2100? This talk will begin with a few predictions that aim to suggest a few research directions in the present. We will then transition to the exciting area of applied zero knowledge proofs, an area that has seen tremendous growth in recent years. We will describe some of the new ideas in the space and focus on a number of remarkable real-word applications of these techniques. The talk will be self contained and accessible to all.