The transition from fifth-generation (5 G) to sixth-generation (6 G) networks is driving significant advancements in network slicing, fueled by the growing demand for next-generation applications and services. However, managing these advancements within the constraints of finite resources creates the opportunity for open resource marketplaces, which introduces technical and business challenges. To address these, we propose TokenNet, the first blockchain-based architecture that represents network resources as non-fungible tokens (NFTs) in the context of network slicing. TokenNet facilitates secure, decentralized resource trading, ownership traceability, and management, optimizing resource allocation through auctioning, brokering, and trust mechanisms. It offers more granular, flexible, and trustworthy control over network resources compared to existing state-of-the-art systems. Our prototype implementation demonstrates its effectiveness, outperforming baseline models in cost efficiency, reducing delays, and improving minting performance. These advantages position TokenNet as a promising solution for future network management.
This paper presents a multi-contract blockchain framework for inter-provider agreements in 6G networks, emphasizing performance analysis under a realistic Proof-of-Stake (PoS) setting on Ethereum's Sepolia testnet. We begin by quantifying Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM)-based gas usage for critical operations such as provider registration, service addition, and SLA penalty enforcement, observing that cold writes and deep data structures can each inflate gas consumption by up to 20\%. We then examine block-level dynamics when multiple transactions execute concurrently, revealing that moderate concurrency (e.g., 30--50 simultaneous transactions) can fill blocks to 80--90\% of their gas limit and nearly double finalization times from around 15~seconds to over 30~seconds. Finally, we synthesize these insights into a practical design guide, demonstrating that flattening nested mappings, consolidating storage writes, and selectively timing high-impact transactions can markedly reduce costs and latency spikes. Collectively, our findings underscore the importance of EVM-specific optimizations and transaction scheduling for large-scale decentralized applications in 6G telecom scenarios. The implementation is available online.
Open access
3 source records
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
IoT and Edge/Fog Computing
Innovative Microfluidic and Catalytic Techniques Innovation
Blockchain technology has emerged as a transformative solution for securing distributed networks, offering decentralized and immutable data management. However, the resilience of blockchain systems faces challenges from various security threats, including double-spending, Sybil attacks, and vulnerabilities in smart contracts. This paper explores the effectiveness of various blockchain security protocols in enhancing the security and stability of distributed networks. The study provides a comprehensive review of cryptographic techniques, consensus algorithms, and privacy-enhancing technologies, such as Zero-Knowledge Proofs and Multi-Party Computation. Through a detailed analysis of case studies involving Bitcoin, Ethereum, and Hyperledger Fabric, the paper highlights the strengths and limitations of different security protocols. Additionally, the paper discusses the future direction of blockchain security, including the impact of emerging threats such as quantum computing on current security measures. The findings emphasize the need for ongoing innovation in security protocols to ensure the long-term resilience of blockchain networks. The paper concludes with recommendations for improving the security frameworks in both public and permissioned blockchains, with a focus on scalability, privacy, and resistance to emerging attacks.
The distributed ledger technology (DLT) landscape comprises a wide range of independent networks with little to none built-in interoperability. To be applied in traditional enterprises, these DLT systems must also interact with legacy systems with no support for the processes of a DLT. An important topic in DLT research is, therefore, to establish standardised protocols for cross-network transfer and exchange of data and assets. Ideally, these protocols should be general-purpose so that they can be applied on top of many different types of ledger systems. One such protocol, supporting asset transfer, is the Secure Asset Transfer Protocol (SATP or 'SAT protocol') in development by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The SATP Core protocol draft by Hargreaves et al. (2024) describes an interoperability protocol that can facilitate asset transfer between two DLT systems, as well as between a DLT system and a non-DLT system. In either case, the SAT protocol imposes no restrictions on the underlying system implementations. Building on this work, in this paper, we present an adaptation of SATP that facilitates cross-network asset exchanges. This asset exchange protocol, named the Secure Asset Exchange Protocol, inherits the key advantages of SATP but enables asset exchanges instead of asset transfers.
Javier José Díaz Rivera, Ricard Vilalta, Raúl Muñoz, Pol Alemany · 5 authors
In complex network systems, multiple Software Defined Networking (SDN) controllers are often deployed across different domains to manage diverse underlay technologies. This multi-controller environment introduces significant challenges in ensuring security and trust, as traditional secure methods such as Public Key Infrastructures (PKI), which rely on Certificate Authorities (CAs), often struggle to provide the necessary flexibility, transparency, and protection against tampering. Distributed Ledger Technologies (DLT) present a compelling solution by enabling decentralized management and the immutable recording of network configurations. This paper proposes an approach where SDN controllers from various domains act as valida-tor nodes within a DLT framework, utilizing Byzantine Fault Tolerance (BFT) as the consensus mechanism. This creates a distributed trust model that enhances collaborative network management by balancing trust among network controllers. By implementing a private, permissioned ledger, data integrity is enforced, and access is restricted to authorized stakeholders, thus maintaining consistency and trust among network configurations through a verifiable record of all transactions. The performance and operational efficiency of this DLT-based approach in multi-SDN controller environments are further evaluated. Experimental results demonstrate the practical benefits and viability of integrating DLT with SDN environments for collaborative network management.
Kurdman Rasol, Alfonso Egio, Miguel Catalán-Cid, Leonardo Lossi · 6 authors
The proper orchestration of end-to-end network slices demands dynamic and meticulous resource management while addressing the complexities of multi-tenancy and multiservice scenarios. In this context, integrating network orchestrators with distributed ledger technologies has gained significant attention for its potential to implement decentralized finance marketplaces and service-level agreements using smart contracts. This approach can support the evolution of business models beyond traditional network-sharing agreements, such as crowdfunding. To this end, we propose the 5G-as-a-Service (5GaaS) system architecture, which leverages distributed ledger technologies and smart contracts to orchestrate and optimize network slicing, enabling ubiquitous computing and connectivity in 5G networks. We evaluated the feasibility of this system across various Ethereum testnets, demonstrating the cost-effectiveness, scalability, and minimal latency of the 5GaaS system, making it suitable for seamless integration into existing telecommunications frameworks.
Ethereum has adopted a rollup-centric roadmap to scale its network while preserving both security and decentralization. Rollups are layer 2 scaling solutions that process transactions off-chain while posting summarized data on-chain to maintain security and reduce costs. Posting data on-chain remains expensive, which led to the introduction of blobs via EIP-4844 that offer a cost-effective solution for data availability (DA). Although blobs significantly reduce DA costs compared to traditional calldata, many cost-sensitive small rollups struggle to fully utilize the fixed blob capacity. Blob sharing, which allows multiple rollups to collaboratively utilize a single blob, has been proposed as a solution to these challenges. In this paper, we empirically analyze nearly six months of data to assess the effectiveness of blob sharing. Our simulation results demonstrate that blob sharing can lower overall costs by approximately $\mathbf{8 0 \%}$ to 99%. These findings imply that the benefits of blob sharing are even greater than initially expected, providing strong incentives for both small and big rollups to actively collaborate in its adoption.
Javier José Díaz Rivera, Ricard Vilalta, Raül Muñoz, Pol Alemany · 5 authors
The increasingly interconnected nature of modern network architectures demands advanced security and trust mechanisms, particularly in environments spanning multiple technology and stakeholder domains. Traditional approaches to network management systems, while effective in static settings, often lack the flexibility, security, and transparency required for dynamic and decentralized operations typical of multi-domain configurations. Distributed Ledger Technologies (DLT) offer a robust alternative by enabling decentralized management and immutable recording of network configurations, inherently increasing security against tampering and unauthorized changes. This paper introduces a DLT approach utilizing a private, permissioned ledger where topology changes are recorded as transactions. The setup enforces data integrity and restricts access to network topology information, ensuring only authorized stakeholders can make changes. Consequently, it enhances security, maintains data consistency, and builds trust among network components by keeping a verifiable record of all changes. Additionally, the paper examines the performance and operational efficiency of integrating DLT within network systems, using the ADRENALINE testbed—an advanced infrastructure for Beyond 5G and future 6G services—as the platform for analysis. Experimental results reveal the system’s performance metrics, illustrating the practical viability of implementing DLT in network operations management.
Software-Defined Networking (SDN) has emerged as a revolutionary architecture in computer networks, offering comprehensive network control and monitoring capabilities. However, securing the east–west interface, which is crucial for communication between distributed SDN controllers, remains a significant challenge. This study proposes a novel blockchain-based security framework that integrates Ethereum technology with customized blockchain algorithms for authentication, encryption, and access control. The framework introduces decentralized mechanisms to protect against diverse attacks, including false data injection, man-in-the-middle (MitM), and unauthorized access. Experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of this framework in securing distributed controllers while maintaining high network performance and low latency, paving the way for more resilient and trustworthy SDN infrastructures.
Engin Zeydan, Luis Blanco, Josep Mangues‐Bafalluy, Abdullah Aydeger · 6 authors
In this paper, we propose an innovative integration of Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) and Blockchain-based Self-Sovereign Identity (SSI) within the Open RAN (O-RAN) framework for 6G networks to address the critical need for enhanced security and robust identity management. We first present a general architecture that takes a multi-layered approach and is carefully designed to leverage the different capabilities of quantum security and blockchain technology. The architecture ensures seamless and secure operation across different layers of the O-RAN, focusing on the Distributed Identity Management (DIM) and Management & Orchestration layers, and explains the interactions between these layers to improve the security and operational efficiency of the network. We also investigate detailed case studies and applications that demonstrate the practicality and transformative potential of integrating QKD-secured blockchain identity management systems in real-world 6G scenarios. We also address the inherent challenges and limitations of such integration and propose viable solutions to overcome them. Finally, we provide insights into future research and implementation directions and highlight the critical role of quantum-secured blockchain systems in the evolution of telecommunication networks toward a more secure, decentralized, and user-centric paradigm.
Yidan Lai, Yang Liu, Haoxiang Luo, Gang Sun · 8 authors
Blockchain, a groundbreaking technology known for its distributed ledger system, records digital transactions and information in a decentralized manner. Broadcast protocols, fundamental components of computer networks, play a crucial role in disseminating information effectively. Blockchain networks often exhibit lower throughput rates compared to centralized payment systems due to the intricate node verification process during data propagation. Improving blockchain performance requires mitigating transaction and block propagation delays within network dissemination processes. This study delves into the development and significance of blockchain broadcast protocols, exploring their applications within blockchain networks. We introduce various broadcast protocols designed to optimize performance metrics such as energy efficiency, fault tolerance, and consistency. A comprehensive analysis, including detailed comparisons through tables, sheds light on the strengths and weaknesses of these protocols. In addition, the evolution of broadcast protocols in the context of Blockchain and the Web 3.0 era is explored, highlighting their emerging characteristics and associated challenges. Lastly, we address potential future challenges and directions for the evolution of broadcast protocols in the blockchain ecosystem.
Software-Defined Networking (SDN) has revolutionized network management by providing unprecedented flexibility, control, and efficiency. However, its centralized architecture introduces critical security vulnerabilities. This paper introduces a novel approach to securing SDN environments using IOTA 2.0 smart contracts. The proposed system utilizes the IOTA Tangle, a directed acyclic graph (DAG) structure, to improve scalability and efficiency while eliminating transaction fees and reducing energy consumption. We introduce three smart contracts: Authority, Access Control, and DoS Detector, to ensure trusted and secure network operations, prevent unauthorized access, maintain the integrity of control data, and mitigate denial-of-service attacks. Through comprehensive simulations using Mininet and the ShimmerEVM IOTA Test Network, we demonstrate the efficacy of our approach in enhancing SDN security. Our findings highlight the potential of IOTA 2.0 smart contracts to provide a robust, decentralized solution for securing SDN environments, paving the way for the further integration of blockchain technologies in network management.
Yi Gong, Boyuan Yu, Lei Yang, Fanke Meng · 7 authors
With the evolution of next-generation communication networks, ensuring robust Core Network (CN) architecture and data security has become paramount. This paper addresses critical vulnerabilities in the architecture of CN and data security by proposing a novel framework based on blockchain technology that is specifically designed for communication networks. Traditional centralized network architectures are vulnerable to Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks, particularly in roaming scenarios where there is also a risk of private data leakage, which imposes significant operational demands. To address these issues, we introduce the Blockchain-Enhanced Core Network Architecture (BECNA) and the Secure Decentralized Identity Authentication Scheme (SDIDAS). The BECNA utilizes blockchain technology to decentralize data storage, enhancing network security, stability, and reliability by mitigating Single Points of Failure (SPoF). The SDIDAS utilizes Decentralized Identity (DID) technology to secure user identity data and streamline authentication in roaming scenarios, significantly reducing the risk of data breaches during cross-network transmissions. Our framework employs Ethereum, free5GC, Wireshark, and UERANSIM tools to create a robust, tamper-evident system model. A comprehensive security analysis confirms substantial improvements in user privacy and network security. Simulation results indicate that our approach enhances communication CNs security and reliability, while also ensuring data security.
Software-Defined Networking (SDN) has revolutionized network management by providing unprecedented flexibility, control, and efficiency. However, its centralized architecture introduces critical security vulnerabilities. This paper presents an innovative approach to securing SDN environments using IOTA 2.0 smart contracts. The proposed system leverages the IOTA Tangle, a directed acyclic graph (DAG) structure, to enhance scalability and efficiency while eliminating transaction fees and reducing energy consumption. We introduce three smart contracts—Authority, Access Control, and DoS Detector—to ensure secure network operations, prevent unauthorized access, and mitigate denial-of-service attacks. Through comprehensive simulations using Mininet and the ShimmerEVM IOTA Test Network, we demonstrate the efficacy of our approach in enhancing SDN security. Our findings highlight the potential of IOTA 2.0 smart contracts to provide a robust, decentralized solution for securing SDN environments, paving the way for further integration of blockchain technologies in network management.
Kouros Zanbouri, Mehdi Darbandi, Mohammad Nassr, Arash Heidari · 6 authors
Summary The latest developments in the industrial Internet of things (IIoT) have opened up a collection of possibilities for many industries. To solve the massive IIoT data security and efficiency problems, a potential approach is considered to satisfy the main needs of IIoT, such as high throughput, high security, and high efficiency, which is named blockchain. The blockchain mechanism is considered a significant approach to boosting data protection and performance. In the quest to amplify the capabilities of blockchain‐based IIoT, a pivotal role is accorded to the Glowworm Swarm Optimization (GSO) algorithm. Inspired by the collaborative brilliance of glowworms in nature, the GSO algorithm offers a unique approach to harmonizing these conflicting aims. This paper proposes a new approach to improve the performance optimization of blockchain‐based IIoT using the GSO algorithm due to the blockchain's contradictory objectives. The proposed blockchain‐based IIoT system using the GSO algorithm addresses scalability challenges typically associated with blockchain technology by efficiently managing interactions among nodes and dynamically adapting to network demands. The GSO algorithm optimizes the allocation of resources and decision‐making, reducing inefficiencies and bottlenecks. The method demonstrates considerable performance improvements through extensive simulations compared to traditional algorithms, offering a more scalable and efficient solution for industrial applications in the context of the IIoT. The extensive simulation and computational study have shown that the proposed method using GSO considerably improves the objective function and blockchain‐based IIoT systems' performance compared to traditional algorithms. It provides more efficient and secure systems for industries and corporations.
A mempool is a security-critical subsystem in a public blockchain. Recent mempool attacks, notably asymmetric DoS, have shown their ability to severely damage the Ethereum network. This paper tackles the open research problem of designing principled and non-intrusive defenses against asymmetric mempool DoSes with provable security. It presents the first mempool economic-security definitions based on mempool-observable conditions. It then presents SAFERAD, a framework of secure mempool designs with provable security against asymmetric DoSes. To defend against dual attacks by evicting and locking a victim mempool, SAFERAD adopts a non-trivial design of enforcing an upper bound of the attack damage under the locking attacks and a lower bound of the attack cost under the eviction attacks. With a prototype implementation on Geth and evaluation under real transaction traces, the results show SAFERAD has low overhead in latency and block revenue, implying non-intrusiveness and practicality.
Abstract Decentralized autonomous organization (DAO)-based applications can revolutionize traditional centralized decision-making procedures and services by enabling scalable, decentralized, autonomous, and democratized decision-making processes. Unlike traditional applications, DAO-based decentralized applications use Ethereum blockchain-based smart contract programs to execute policies or make automated decisions. To that end, 6 G technologies can improve the latency and reliability of many existing blockchain-based DAOs. Previous research did not investigate the execution of DAO and non-DAO-based applications, as well as an adaptive resource choreography scheme, while accounting for various 6 G technologies, blockchain, and mobile-edge cloud (MEC). To prevail over the previous shortcomings, this article supplies a street smart multi-platform coordination, application scheduling, and low-latency-aware resource choreography scheme for both DAO and non-DAO-based application execution over blockchain and MEC-enabled 6 G networks by taking heterogenous DAO and non-DAO application count, application requirements, physical worker, virtual worker, and communication resource status into account. The results verified that the proposed kaizen scheme delivers at least 11.26% app work completion delay gain, 7.2% user energy overhead gain, 6.55% user economic charge gain, and 21% service provider profit than the compared schemes.
A Multi-Controller Software-Defined Network (MC-SDN) is a revolutionary concept comprising multiple controllers and switches separated using programmable features, enhancing network availability, management, scalability, and performance. The MC-SDN is a potential choice for managing large, heterogeneous, complex industrial networks. Despite the rich operational flexibility of MC-SDN, it is imperative to protect the network deployment with proper protection against potential vulnerabilities that lead to misuse and malicious activities on the MC-SDN structure. The security holes in the MC-SDN structure significantly impact network survivability and performance efficiency. Hence, detecting MC-SDN security attacks is crucial to improving network performance. Accordingly, this work intended to design blockchain-based controller security (BCS) that exploits the advantages of immutable and distributed ledger technology among multiple controllers and securely manages the controller communications against various attacks. Thereby, it enables the controllers to maintain consistent network view and accurate flow tables among themselves and also neglects the controller failure issues. Finally, the experimental results of the proposed BCS approach demonstrated superior performance under various scenarios, such as attack detection, number of attackers, number of controllers, and number of compromised controllers, by applying different performance metrics.
Distributed ledger technology, with its multitude of advantages including immutability, transparency, decentralization, and security, has excellent potential to promote and even revolutionize future 6G mobile networks. Large-scale distributed ledger deployment within or for mobile networks relies on distributed ledger-focused standards to facilitate and ensure interoperability. The European Telecommunications Standards (ETSI) Industry Specification Group (ISG) on Permissioned Distributed Ledger (PDL) develops PDL-related standards, targeting various application verticals, especially within the Information and Communications Technology (ICT) domain. This article aims to give an overview of ETSI ISG PDL and describes selected PDL standards, which have synergies with future 6G mobile networks.
Cooperation among telecom carriers and datacenter (DC) providers (DCPs) is essential to ensure resiliency of network-cloud ecosystems. To enable efficient cooperative recovery in case of resource crunch, e.g., due to traffic congestion or network failures, we previously studied several frameworks for cooperative recovery among different stakeholders (e.g., telecom carriers and DCPs). Now, we introduce a novel Multi-entity Cooperation Platform (MCP) for implementing cooperative recovery planning, to achieve efficient use of carriers' valuable optical-network resources during recovery. We adopt a Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) that ensures decentralized and tamper-proof information exchange among stakeholders to achieve open and fair cooperation. To support diverse types of cooperation, we develop a state machine representing the MCP operation and define state transitions associated to stakeholders' cooperation within the state machine. Moreover, we propose a signaling system in MCP to ensure simple and reliable state transitions for stakeholders during the cooperative recovery planning in large ecosystems. We experimentally demonstrate a proof-of-concept DLT-based MCP on a testbed. We showcase a DCP-carrier cooperative planning process, showing the flexibility of the proposed MCP to support diverse types of cooperation.
Cryptographic primitives have finite security lifespans, yet many modern systems—particularly blockchain and zero-knowledge infrastructures—are structurally resistant to change. Existing guidance on cryptographic agility assumes mutable environments and does not account for immutability, governance overhead, or proof system constraints. This work introduces a framework for evaluating cryptographic agility in deployed systems. We propose the Cryptographic Agility Score (CAS), a nine-dimensional evaluation model that characterizes how and where cryptographic dependencies are embedded, and how these constraints affect migration feasibility. Applying the framework to TLS and ZK rollup systems reveals a structural distinction: systems that anchor cryptographic primitives at negotiation layers achieve agility, while those that anchor them at execution layers face fundamental constraints. In ZK systems, these constraints are not only architectural but mathematical, arising from the algebraic structure of proof systems. This preprint presents the framework and its application across case studies. It is intended as a diagnostic and design tool for engineers building systems that must remain resilient under cryptographic change.
Lawrence Nforh CheSuh, Ramón Ángel Fernández Díaz, Jose Manuel Alija-Perez, Carmen Benavides · 5 authors
The quality of service (QoS) parameters in IoT applications plays a prominent role in determining the performance of an application. Considering the significance and popularity of IoT systems, it can be predicted that the number of users and IoT devices are going to increase exponentially shortly. Therefore, it is extremely important to improve the QoS provided by IoT applications to increase their adaptability. Majority of the IoT systems are characterized by their heterogeneous and diverse nature. It is challenging for these systems to provide high-quality access to all the connecting devices with uninterrupted connectivity. Considering their heterogeneity, it is equally difficult to achieve better QoS parameters. Artificial intelligence-based machine learning (ML) tools are considered a potential tool for improving the QoS parameters in IoT applications. This research proposes a novel approach for enhancing QoS parameters in IoT using ML and Blockchain techniques. The IoT network with Blockchain technology is simulated using an NS2 simulator. Different QoS parameters such as delay, throughput, packet delivery ratio, and packet drop are analyzed. The obtained QoS values are classified using different ML models such as Naive Bayes (NB), Decision Tree (DT), and Ensemble, learning techniques. Results show that the Ensemble classifier achieves the highest classification accuracy of 83.74% compared to NB and DT classifiers.
Rudolf Kovacs, Sorin Buzura, Bogdan Iancu, Vasile Dădârlat · 6 authors
The network function virtualization (NFV) feature lies at the core of modern networking, and it allows on-demand real-time integration of new network functions, which is a great benefit for large-scale infrastructure networks. In contrast to the functional benefits, NFV introduces software complexity and computational overhead through additional abstraction layers. The current article addresses the function validation problem in large-scale infrastructure networks of Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and proposes the utilization of blockchain as a validation technology, as opposed to implementing a custom validation solution. The current work showcases a practical architecture implementation to address the service validation in service provider large-scale networks. The POX-based solution to control software-defined networks (SDN) for NFV is extended to offer additional blockchain capabilities. Thus, a blockchain node is integrated and executed in the POX SDN controller. Transaction experiments are performed between two endpoints located in remote locations on the Internet, and the detailed results are presented to validate the utilization of the blockchain technology used on SDNs’ control plane.