As society advances, so does the total number of vehicles on the road, creating a massive consumer market for automobiles. According to statistics, a major portion of today's traffic difficulties are caused by accidents caused by subpar cars and auto parts. As a result, each country has, over time, enacted equivalent rules and regulations to prevent such tragedies. However, in the face of profit, some people are desperate enough to employ illegal parts and illegally modified cars, and auto fraud is rampant. As a result, we employ the blockchain of the symmetrical Blockchain's digital ledger and smart contract technology to build a decentralized supply chain system that can identify specific parts. In this study, we design and discuss the proposed system framework by user functions and the flow of parts based on blockchain, and we discuss communication protocols that use the symmetry and asymmetry cryptography, algorithms, properties, and security of the mechanism while providing related analysis and comparing the properties and costs of the system with other studies. Overall, the proposed method has the potential to successfully address the issue of automobile fraud.
As IoT becomes omnipresent vast amounts of data are generated, which can be used for building innovative applications. However,interoperability issues and security concerns, prevent harvesting the full potentials of these data. In this paper we consider the use case of data generated by smart buildings. Buildings are becoming ever "smarter" by integrating IoT devices that improve comfort through sensing and automation. However, these devices and their data are usually siloed in specific applications or manufacturers, even though they can be valuable for various interested stakeholders who provide different types of "over the top" services, e.g., energy management. Most data sharing techniques follow an "all or nothing" approach, creating significant security and privacy threats, when even partially revealed, privacy-preserving, data subsets can fuel innovative applications. With these in mind we develop a platform that enables controlled, privacy-preserving sharing of data items. Our system innovates in two directions: Firstly, it provides a framework for allowing discovery and selective disclosure of IoT data without violating their integrity. Secondly, it provides a user-friendly, intuitive mechanisms allowing efficient, fine-grained access control over the shared data. Our solution leverages recent advances in the areas of Self-Sovereign Identities, Verifiable Credentials, and Zero-Knowledge Proofs, and it integrates them in a platform that combines the industry-standard authorization framework OAuth 2.0 and the Web of Things specifications.
Foteini Baldimtsi, Panagiotis Chatzigiannis, Steven Gordon, Phi Hung Le · 5 authors
We present gOTzilla, a protocol for interactive zero-knowledge proofs for very large disjunctive statements of the following format: given publicly known circuit C, and set of values Y = {y1 , . . . , yn }, prove knowledge of a witness x such that C(x) = y1 ∨ C(x) = y2 ∨ · · · ∨ C(x) = yn . These type of statements are extremely important for the proof of assets (PoA) problem in cryptocurrencies where a prover wants to prove the knowledge of a secret key sk that associates with the hash of a public key H(pk) posted on the ledger. We note that the size of n in popular cryptocurrencies, such as Bitcoin, is estimated to 80 million. For the construction of gOTzilla, we start by observing that if we restructure the proof statement to an equivalent of proving knowledge of (x, y) such that (C(x) = y) ∧ (y = y1 ∨ · · · ∨ y = yn )), then we can reduce the disjunction of equalities to 1-out-of-N oblivious transfer (OT). Our overall protocol is based on the MPC in the head (MPCitH) paradigm. We additionally provide a concrete, efficient extension of our protocol for the case where C combines algebraic and non-algebraic statements (which is the case in the PoA application). We achieve an asymptotic communication cost of O(log n) plus the proof size of the underlying MPCitH protocol. While related work has similar asymptotic complexity, our approach results in concrete performance improvements. We implement our protocol and provide benchmarks. Concretely, for a set of size 1 million entries, the total run-time of our protocol is 14.89 seconds using 48 threads, with 6.18 MB total communication, which is about 4x faster compared to the state of the art when considering a disjunctive statement with algebraic and non-algebraic elements.
A non-fungible token (NFT) is a unit of data on what is known as a blockchain digital ledger, where each token can represent a unique piece of digital data. Since they are not interchangeable, non-homogeneous tokens can represent digital files, such as paintings, sounds, movies, projects in games, or other forms of creative work. Blockchain allows users on the C or B side to place personal data or business data on the blockchain network, instead of homogenous token, thus becoming the next hot spot in the Internet industry. 2021 was perhaps the most critical year for the industry so far. In this paper, 2020 can be defined as a year of construction and preparation, which saw great progress and positive results on the most important indicators and macro indicators for the industry. There are more wallets and transactions interacting with DApps than ever before, and the demand for NFT and games has increased dramatically.
With the enormous amount of data produced daily, cloud and fog computing presented efficient and effective models for real-time data exchange. Nevertheless, this technology came with a cost at the security level, where it became an easy target for malicious actions that could directly spread throughout the model. Blockchain, a recent and promising technology, was a suitable solution for securing the transactions in the fog environment because of the distributed ledger structure that makes it resistant to many attacks. Scalability, however, introduced the main drawback for a blockchain by making it inefficient in some real-world applications, especially in the medical field, which includes a lot of data exchange. This work will suggest a scalable and secure model for fog and cloud computing in healthcare systems that depend on sidechains and the clustering of the available fog nodes. The importance of the model is highlighted, and experimental results showed promising outcomes.
The dominance of a few big companies in the storage market arising various concerns including single point of failure, privacy violation, and oligopoly. To eliminate the dependency on such a centralized storage architecture, several Decentralized Storage Network (DSN) schemes such as Filecoin, Sia, and Storj have been introduced. DSNs leverage blockchain technology to create a storage platform such that the micro storage providers can also participate in the storage market. To verify the accurate data storage by the storage providers during a storage contract, DSNs apply a Proof of Storage (PoS) scheme to continuously inspect the storage service. However, continuous verification of the storage provider imposes an extra cost to the network and therefore end-users. Moreover, DSN's PoS verification is vulnerable to a service denying attack in which the storage provider submits valid PoS to the network while denying the service to the client. Considering the benefits and existing challenges of DSNs, this paper introduces a novel incentive-compatible DSN scheme. In this scheme, the PoS is conducted only if the client submits a challenge request. We model the storage service as a non-cooperative repeated dynamic game and set the players' payoffs such that the storage provider's dominant strategy is to honestly follow the storage contract. Our proposed mechanism leverages the smart-contract and oracle network to govern the storage agreement between the client and storage provider efficiently. Furthermore, our scheme is independent of a specific blockchain platform but can be plugged into any blockchain platform with smart-contract execution capability. As a proof of concept, we have implemented our scheme using solidity language and chainlink oracle network. The performance analysis demonstrates the applicability of our scheme. The outcome of this paper is a new incentive-compatible mechanism designed carefully for the blockchain-based DSN. The proposed mechanism utilizes different tools including game-theory, smart-contract, oracle network, and Merkle tree to improve the security and performance of storage verification in DSN.
Kirtirajsinh Zala, Hiren Kumar Thakkar, Rajendrasinh Jadeja, Neel H. Dholakia · 7 authors
Traditional healthcare services have changed into modern ones in which doctors can diagnose patients from a distance. All stakeholders, including patients, ward boy, life insurance agents, physicians, and others, have easy access to patients' medical records due to cloud computing. The cloud's services are very cost-effective and scalable, and provide various mobile access options for a patient's electronic health records (EHRs). EHR privacy and security are critical concerns despite the many benefits of the cloud. Patient health information is extremely sensitive and important, and sending it over an unencrypted wireless media raises a number of security hazards. This study suggests an innovative and secure access system for cloud-based electronic healthcare services storing patient health records in a third-party cloud service provider. The research considers the remote healthcare requirements for maintaining patient information integrity, confidentiality, and security. There will be fewer attacks on e-healthcare records now that stakeholders will have a safe interface and data on the cloud will not be accessible to them. End-to-end encryption is ensured by using multiple keys generated by the key conclusion function (KCF), and access to cloud services is granted based on a person's identity and the relationship between the parties involved, which protects their personal information that is the methodology used in the proposed scheme. The proposed scheme is best suited for cloud-based e-healthcare services because of its simplicity and robustness. Using different Amazon EC2 hosting options, we examine how well our cloud-based web application service works when the number of requests linearly increases. The performance of our web application service that runs in the cloud is based on how many requests it can handle per second while keeping its response time constant. The proposed secure access scheme for cloud-based web applications was compared to the Ethereum blockchain platform, which uses internet of things (IoT) devices in terms of execution time, throughput, and latency.
Miodrag J. Mihaljević, Lianhai Wang, Shujiang Xu, Milan Todorović
This paper proposes an approach for pool mining in public blockchain systems based on the employment of a recently reported consensus protocol with the puzzle based on a symmetric encryption that provides an energy–space trade-off and reduces energy consumption. The proposed architecture employs a pseudo-symmetric allocation of the resources for the blockchain consensus protocol and provides protection against certain malicious actions of the pool members, as well as a miner’s opportunity for selecting the resources required for participation in the consensus protocol. Given that the considered consensus protocol employs two resources, the proposed architecture uses this two-dimensional nature to provide resistance against block withholding and selfish mining attacks, as well as a reduction in energy spending as a trade-off with the employment of certain memory resources. The high resistance of the proposed pool mining approach against the considered attacks appears to be a consequence of the success probability of the pool in comparison with the success probability of malicious miners. Assuming appropriate selection of the puzzle hardness, the probability that malicious miners can solve the puzzle without the support of the pool manager can be arbitrarily small. Implementation of the proposed approach on a modified Ethereum platform and experimental evaluation issues have also been reported. The conceptual novelty of the proposed pool mining approach is the following: Instead of separation of the blockchain consensus protocol and control of pool miners honest work, this paper proposes an approach where honest work of miners and pool managers is provided by a dedicated application of the considered consensus protocol. Advantages of the proposal in comparison with the previously reported ones include the following: (i) high resistance against block withholding and selfish mining attacks without an additional security procedure; (ii) reduction in the energy required, and at the same time preservationthe security of the consensus protocol; (iii) flexibility of the pool miners regarding selection of the resources that should be employed providing a trade-off between required energy and memory resources. The proposed architecture was implemented employing a dedicated modification of the Ethereum platform and the performed experiments confirmed the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposal.
Threats towards information systems have continued to increase and become more sophisticated, making security approaches a necessity for all types of organizations to ensure their protection. To implement an appropriate computer security policy, it is necessary to efficiently exploit the data that has become a valuable asset for these security systems, provided it is well used, controlled and monitored.In this paper, we focus on developing a decentralized solution based on Blockchain technology and IPFS (InterPlanetary File System) that can maintain and ensure the integrity of log files and sensitive information. The obtained results are promising, we obtained a distributed ledger of all log file transactions in a chronological sequence, which was shared among all Ethereum participants, allowing us to verify the log files' integrity, validity, and auditability throughout their life cycle.
Aniruddha Bhattacharjya, Kamil Kozdrój, Grzegorz Bazydło, Remigiusz Wiśniewski
The Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) global market has grown and developed significantly in recent years, and the number of IoMT devices is increasing every year. IoMT systems are now very popular and have become part of our everyday life. However, such systems should be properly protected to preventing unauthorized access to the devices. One of the most popular security methods that additionally relies on real-time communication is Blockchain. Moreover, such a technique can be supported by the Trusted Third Party (TTP), which guarantees data immutability and transparency. The research and industrial community has predicted the proliferation of Blockchain-based IoMT (BIoMT), for providing security, privacy, and effective insurance processing. A connected environment comprises some of the unique features of the IoMT in the form of sensors and devices that capture and measure, recognize and classify, assess risk, notify, make conclusions, and take action. Distributed communication is also unique due to the combination of the fact that the Blockchain cannot be tampered with and the Peer-to-Peer (P2P) technique, especially compared to the traditional cloud-based techniques where the reliance of IoMT systems on the centralized cloud makes it somewhat vulnerable. This paper proposes a Blockchain-based technique oriented on IoMT applications with a focus on maintaining Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability (the CIA triad) of data communication in the system. The proposed solution is oriented toward trusted and secure real-time communication. The presented method is illustrated by an example of a cloud-based hospital application. Finally, the security aspects of the proposed approach are studied and analyzed in detail.
The emergence of metaverse brings tremendous evolution to Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs), which could certify the ownership the unique digital asset in the cyber world. The NFT market has garnered unprecedented attention from investors and created billions of dollars in transaction volume. Meanwhile, securing NFT is still a challenging issue. Recently, numerous incidents of NFT theft have been reported, leading to incalculable losses for holders. We propose a decentralized NFT anti-theft mechanism called TokenPatronus, which supports the general ERC-721 standard and provide the holders with strong property protection. TokenPatronus contains pre-event protection, in-event interruption, and post-event replevin enhancements for the complete NFTs transactions stages. Four modules are designed to make up the decentralized anti-theft mechanism, including the decentralized access control (DAC), the decentralized risk management (DRM), the decentralized arbitration system (DAS) and the ERC-721G standard smart contract. TokenPatronus is performing on the Turtlecase NFT project of Ethereum and will support more blockchains in the future.
With the increase of data stored on the blockchain, the efficiency of storage and calculation of blockchain has gradually become a bottleneck restricting the development of blockchain. By storing data on multiple chains, blockchains can request data from other chains for calculation and the storage pressure can be alleviated. But the transfer of a large amount of data between chains suffers from low transfer efficiency and poor security. A reasonable design is to perform the calculation on the data storage chain and only transfer the results across chains. However, since the calculation process is invisible, blockchains cannot judge the consistency of calculation results from other chains. In this paper, we provide a blockchain-enabled decentralized consistency verification scheme for cross-chain calculation (BeDCV). Considering the decentralized characteristic of blockchain, we adopt the blockchain calledsupervision chainfor decentralized auditing. We modify paillier homomorphic encryption to encrypt data involved in the calculation for correctness verification. Then, we aggregate the ciphertexts of data to generate the audit proof for integrity verification. Besides, we verify whether the data involved in the calculation are real-time by leveraging a counting bloom filter. The supervision chain can check the correctness, integrity, and real-time performance of cross-chain data calculation without revealing any original information about the data. The theoretical and experimental analysis demonstrates that BeDCV can verify the consistency of cross-chain data calculation result effectively, realizing secure and reliable expansion of blockchain.
Muhammad Saeed, Rashid Amin, Muhammad Umar Aftab, Naeem Ahmed
Security is a big challenge for developing and implementing IoT in smart building situations. In this context, our goal is to create a secure blockchain-based trust management system. To do so we take advantage of the security features that blockchain technology provides in terms of reliability, traceability, and data integrity. We design and implement a blockchain-based trust strategy that collects trust evidence, assigns each device a trust score, and securely stores and shares them with other devices in the network by integrating them into blockchain exchanges. According to the findings of our performance evaluation, our concept includes security features such as tamper-proofing and assault resistance, reliability, and easy implementation for IoT environments and applications.
Sumit Kumar Rana, Sanjeev Rana, Kashif Nisar, Ag Asri Ag Ibrahim · 7 authors
Healthcare, one of the most important industries, is data-oriented, but most of the research in this industry focuses on incorporating the internet of things (IoT) or connecting medical equipment. Very few researchers are looking at the data generated in the healthcare industry. Data are very important tools in this competitive world, as they can be integrated with artificial intelligence (AI) to promote sustainability. Healthcare data include the health records of patients, drug-related data, clinical trials data, data from various medical equipment, etc. Most of the data management processes are manual, time-consuming, and error-prone. Even then, different healthcare industries do not trust each other to share and collaborate on data. Distributed ledger technology is being used for innovations in different sectors including healthcare. This technology can be incorporated to maintain and exchange data between different healthcare organizations, such as hospitals, insurance companies, laboratories, pharmacies, etc. Various attributes of this technology, such as its immutability, transparency, provenance etc., can bring trust and security to the domain of the healthcare sector. In this paper, a decentralized access control model is proposed to enable the secure interoperability of different healthcare organizations. This model uses the Ethereum blockchain for its implementation. This model interfaces patients, doctors, chemists, and insurance companies, empowering the consistent and secure exchange of data. The major concerns are maintaining a history of the transactions and avoiding unauthorized updates in health records. Any transaction that changes the state of the data is reflected in the distributed ledger and can be easily traced with this model. Only authorized entities can access their respective data. Even the administrator will not be able to modify any medical records.
The fair exchange problem has faced for a long time the bottleneck of a required trusted third party. The recent development of blockchains introduces a new type of party to this problem, whose trustworthiness relies on a public ledger and distributed computation. The challenge in this setting is to reconcile the minimalistic and public nature of blockchains with elaborate fair exchange requirements, from functionality to privacy. Zero-knowledge contingent payments (ZKCP) are a class of protocols that are promising in this direction, allowing the fair exchange of data for payment. We propose a new ZKCP protocol that, when compared to others, requires less computation from the blockchain and less interaction between parties. The protocol is based on two-party (weak) adaptor signatures, which we show how to instantiate from state of the art multiparty signing protocols. We improve the symbolic definition of ZKCP security and, for automated verification with Tamarin, we propose a general security reduction from the theory of abelian groups to the theory of exclusive or.
Blockchain is a distributed ledger that combines technologies such as cryptography, consensus mechanism, peer-to-peer transmission, and time stamping. The rapid development of blockchain has attracted attention from all walks of life, but storage scalability issues have hindered the application of blockchain. In this paper, a scalable blockchain storage model based on Distributed Hash Table (DHT) and the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) was proposed. This paper introduces the current research status of the scalable blockchain storage model, as well as the basic principles of DHT and the InterPlanetary File System. The model construction and workflow are explained in detail. At the same time, the DHT network construction mechanism, block heat identification mechanism, new node initialization mechanism, and block data read and write mechanism in the model are described in detail. Experimental results show that this model can reduce the storage burden of nodes, and at the same time, the blockchain network can accommodate more local blocks under the same block height.
Blockchains are meant to be persistent: posted transactions are immutable and cannot be changed. When a theft takes place, there are limited options for reversing the disputed transaction, and this has led to significant losses in the blockchain ecosystem. In this paper we propose reversible versions of ERC-20 and ERC-721, the most widely used token standards. With these new standards, a transaction is eligible for reversal for a short period of time after it has been posted on chain. After the dispute period has elapsed, the transaction can no longer be reversed. Within the short dispute period, a sender can request to reverse a transaction by convincing a decentralized set of judges to first freeze the disputed assets, and then later convincing them to reverse the transaction. Supporting reversibility in the context of ERC-20 and ERC-721 raises many interesting technical challenges. This paper explores these challenges and proposes a design for our ERC-20R and ERC-721R standards, the reversible versions of ERC-20 and ERC-721. We also provide a prototype implementation. Our goal is to initiate a deeper conversation about reversibility in the hope of reducing some of the losses in the blockchain ecosystem.
Abstract In today’s world, 96% of all goods depend on chemicals. Chemical industry plays vital role in supply chain. Chemical supply chain consists of multiple stakeholders including raw material suppliers to end user customers. Based on regulations, several product documents are needed to be supplied with the chemicals till the end of the life cycle. Blockchain based document traceability offers a viable solution to create a decentralized distributed shared platform for a secure, immutable, transparent, permanent, trustworthy, and accountable system for all the stakeholders involved. In this paper, an overview of the document traceability, current challenges and envisage how Blockchain and smart contracts address those challenges are presented. Based on the analysis, it is proposed to use using Hyperledger Fabric, an open-source private blockchain to meet the document traceability requirements such as security, privacy, scalability, authentication, and authorization. The proposed Blockchain architecture provides a feasible solution to build and deploy an end-to-end decentralized application in the chemical supply chain industry for document traceability.
A peer-to-peer (P2P) decentralized information-sharing network is used to share data and maintain security, privacy, and integrity standards called blockchain. In this case, information sharing and updating require regular simplification. The presented systematic review mainly focuses on the interoperability of electronic health records (EHRs) using blockchain. Correspondingly, 18 blockchain-based solutions were selected to address the interoperability challenges of EHRs. The limitation of solutions includes reliability, privacy, integrity, sharing, and standards. This systematic review contains six phase’s research question, research phase, article selection, abstract-based keyword, data extraction, and progress tracking. Various Web resources such as Google Scholar, Web of Science, and IEEE are used to extract the relevant manuscripts. Primarily, 18 articles were selected to present the interoperable requirements of EHRs using blockchain, standards of blockchain-based EHRs, and solutions for interoperability of EHRs using blockchain. The conducted study explains the best available interoperable blockchain-based EHR standards, implementations, applications, and challenges.
Xingguo Jiang, Aidong Sun, Yan Sun, Hong Luo · 5 authors
As the smart grid develops rapidly, abundant connected devices offer various trading data. This raises higher requirements for secure and effective data storage. Traditional centralized data management does not meet the above requirements. Currently, smart grid with conventional consortium blockchain can solve the above issues. However, in the face of a large number of nodes, existing consensus algorithms often perform poorly in terms of efficiency and throughput. In this paper, we propose a trust-based hierarchical consensus mechanism (THCM) to solve this problem. Firstly, we design a hierarchical mechanism to improve the efficiency and throughput. Then, intra-layer nodes use an improved Raft consensus algorithm and inter-layer nodes use the Byzantine Fault Tolerance algorithm. Thirdly, we propose a trust evaluation method to improve the election process of Raft. Finally, we implement a prototype system to evaluate the performance of THCM. The results demonstrate that the consensus efficiency is improved by 19.8%, the throughput is improved by 12.34%, and the storage is reduced by 37.9%.
In recent years, blockchain holds promise to impact a wide range of application areas, but it still suffers from technical challenges such as security and scalability. The increase in the number of transactions puts blockchains under data storage pressure. The emergence of cross-chain technologies connects different blockchains and relieves the data storage pressure. However, the existing research generally focuses on the technical realization of cross chain, lacking in-depth research on consistency issues like data integrity verification of cross-chain interaction. In this paper, we propose a decentralized cross-chain data integrity verification scheme (DCIV) from the point of view of governing the chain by chain. We adopt supervision chain to audit the integrity of data in cross-chain interaction. We preprocess the off-chain original data in the form of Merkle tree. Before cross-chain interaction, we process the data with KZG polynomial commitment. During the auditing period, the supervision chain generates a challenge and verifies the integrity of cross-chain data. In particular, we add audit digests into the structure of transactions in blockchain to reduce the storage burden during auditing. Theoretical and experimental analyses demonstrate that DCIV can verify the integrity of data in cross-chain interaction, achieving secure and accurate cross-chain data sharing.
Amna Amanat, Muhammad Rizwan, Carsten Maple, Yousaf Bin Zikria · 6 authors
Healthcare information is essential for both service providers and patients. Further secure sharing and maintenance of Electronic Healthcare Records (EHR) are imperative. EHR systems in healthcare have traditionally relied on a centralized system (e.g., cloud) to exchange health data across healthcare stakeholders, which may expose private and sensitive patient information. EHR has struggled to meet the demands of several stakeholders and systems in terms of safety, isolation, and other regulatory constraints. Blockchain is a distributed, decentralized ledger technology that can provide secured, validated, and immutable data sharing facilities. Blockchain creates a distributed ledger system using techniques of cryptography (hashes) that are consistent and permit actions to be carried out in a distributed manner without needing a centralized authority. Data exploitation is difficult and evident in a blockchain network due to its immutability. We propose an architecture based on blockchain technology that authenticates the user identity using a Proof of Stake (POS) cryptography consensus mechanism and Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA256) to secure EHR sharing among different electronic healthcare systems. An Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA) is used to verify EHR sensors to assemble and transmit data to cloud infrastructure. Results indicate that the proposed solution performs exceptionally well when compared with existing solutions, which include Proof-Of-Work (POW), Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA-1), and Message Digest (MD5) in terms of power consumption, authenticity, and security of healthcare records.
Cong Yue, Tien Tuan Anh Dinh, Zhongle Xie, Meihui Zhang · 7 authors
Verifiable ledger databases protect data history against malicious tampering. Existing systems, such as blockchains and certificate transparency, are based on transparency logs --- a simple abstraction allowing users to verify that a log maintained by an untrusted server is append-only. They expose a simple key-value interface without transactions. Building a practical database from transparency logs, on the other hand, remains a challenge. In this paper, we explore the design space of verifiable ledger databases along three dimensions: abstraction, threat model, and performance. We survey existing systems and identify their two limitations, namely, the lack of transaction support and the inferior efficiency. We then present GlassDB, a distributed database system that addresses these limitations under a practical threat model. GlassDB inherits the verifiability of transparency logs, but supports transactions and offers high performance. It extends a ledgerlike key-value store with a data structure for efficient proofs, and adds a concurrency control mechanism for transactions. GlassDB batches independent operations from concurrent transactions when updating the core data structures. In addition, we design a new benchmark for evaluating verifiable ledger databases, by extending YCSB and TPC-C benchmarks. Using this benchmark, we compare GlassDB against four baselines: reimplemented versions of three verifiable databases, and a verifiable map backed by a transparency log. Experimental results demonstrate that GlassDB is an efficient, transactional, and verifiable ledger database system.
With the development of blockchain applications, the requirements for file storage in blockchain are increasing rapidly. Many protocols, including Filecoin, Arweave, and Sia, have been proposed to provide scalable decentralized file storage for blockchain applications. However, the reliability is not well promised by existing protocols. Inspired by the idea of insurance, we innovatively propose a decentralized file storage protocol in blockchain, named as FileInsurer, to achieve both scalability and reliability. While ensuring scalability by distributed storage, FileInsurer guarantees reliability by enhancing robustness and fully compensating for the file loss. Specifically, under mild conditions, we prove that no more than 0.1\% value of all files should be compensated even if half of the storage collapses. Therefore, only a relatively small deposit needs to be pledged by storage providers to cover the potential file loss. Because of lower burdens of deposit, storage providers have more incentives to participate in the storage network. FileInsurer can run in the top layer of the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS), and thus it can be directly applied in Web 3.0, Non-Fungible Tokens, and Metaverse.