The fundamental building blocks of the Bitcoin lightning network are bidirectional payment channels. We describe an extension of payment channels in the Proofgold network which allow the two parties to bet on whether a proposition will be proven by a certain time. These provide the foundation for a Proofgold lightning network that would allow parties to request proofs (by betting there will be no proof by a certain time) and other parties to provide proofs (and be rewarded by betting there will be a proof). The bets may also provide a way to approximate the probability that a certain proposition is provable (in the given amount of time). We describe the implementation of payment channels supporting proofs in Proofgold and discuss a potential lightning network that could be built as a result. One application of such lightning network would be a large decentralized infrastructure for fast collaborative formalization projects.
Proofgold is a blockchain that supports formalized mathematics alongside standard cryptocurrency functionality. It incorporates logical constructs into the blockchain, including declarations of formal theories, definitions, propositions and proofs. It also supports placing and collecting bounties on proving these propositions, incentivizing the development of the formal libraries contained in Proofgold. In this paper, we present a web-based blockchain explorer for Proofgold. The system exposes not only the usual transactional data but also the formal mathematical components embedded in the chain and allows some interaction with them. The explorer allows users to inspect blocks, transactions, and addresses, as well as formal objects: theories, definitions, theorems and their proofs. We also support the submission of transactions to the blockchain using our interface. We describe the system architecture and its integration with the Proofgold Lava software, highlighting how the explorer supports navigation of formal content and facilitates mathematical knowledge management in a decentralized setting, as well as a number of formalizations in category theory done in the system.
The rapid expansion of the Internet of Things (IoT) is driving the integration of billions of connected devices across various domains, including healthcare, transportation, and smart urban systems. Although this proliferation offers considerable advantages in terms of functionality and operational efficiency, it also brings to the forefront a range of pressing concerns, particularly in relation to security, reliability, and privacy. These challenges are largely rooted in the decentralized and dynamic architecture of IoT ecosystems. In this context, trust and reputation mechanisms have become increasingly vital for enabling secure and reliable interactions between devices and users. This paper examines recent advances in trust management models tailored to IoT environments, with a focus on approaches leveraging blockchain technologies, machine learning techniques, and edge or fog computing paradigms. We assess the practical implications of these solutions, discussing both their strengths and inherent limitations. Furthermore, we identify key open issues such as scalability, data protection, and interoperability across platforms, and we outline potential research directions to support the development of more robust and adaptable trust frameworks for the evolving IoT landscape.
The technological foundation of each civilization determines its living conditions and prosperity [2,3,4]. Access to discussed resources should not be viewed as solely an individual concern, since abundance is significantly shaped by economies of scale and collective practices. At the same time, they are fundamentally linked to the political practices that must be followed. Wittfogel noted that hydraulic works requiring collective effort have underpinned social structures depending on elite oversight mainly due to their complexity [5] which refers to the behaviour of a system or model characterized by a large number of interconnected components, nonlinear interactions, and emergent properties that cannot be fully understood by analysing individual parts in isolation [6].However, there is always a turning point in economies of scale where, past a certain threshold, the rising managerial costs increases the unit cost [7,8]. Projecting this principle onto social dynamics, we note that, there is an optimal point at which society gains the most from cooperative behaviour [9], yet it becomes inefficient when social structures expand to such an extent that the cost of their coordination outweighs the provided benefits [10,11].The challenges of balancing cooperative benefits with coordination costs in achieving economies of scale by state regulations have been addressed through socio-political theories emphasizing the state's role. Adam Smith recognized that cooperative market interactions, facilitated by minimal state intervention, could create economies of scale through specialization and trade, with the state ensuring basic legal frameworks [12,13]. Karl Marx argued that cooperative labor under capitalism, while initially fostering economies of scale, required state-led collectivization to equitably distribute benefits and overcome exploitative capital accumulation [14,15]. John Maynard Keynes emphasized state-driven cooperation, advocating for public investment and demand management to stabilize markets and sustain economies of scale during economic downturns [16]. Neoliberalism, led by figures like Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman, critiqued state overreach, promoting cooperative market mechanisms with minimal state involvement to maximize economies of scale through competition and innovation [17,18]. These perspectives shaped societal systems, with capitalism and communism as the most prominent rivals [19]. However, both the Soviet Union (communism) and the United States (capitalism) landed humans on the moon in late 1960s, demonstrating that each system, could equally effectively achieve the monumental milestone of that era [20,21].The same principle applies to technological applications-there is a limit beyond which the evolution of complexity ceases to be beneficial. For instance, the embedded complexity in various consumer goods, such as cars, creates vulnerabilities that render these vehicles prematurely obsolete [22,23]. While in earlier times this was often regarded as a disadvantage, today it appears that the temporariness of an object, which creates the need for its replacement within a short period, promotes the desired outcome: the consumption of new products to replace it [24]. This could imply that the durability of things is almost undesirable [25].Within the framework of globalization, this may not have been a flaw, as global trade was encouraged to enable easy replacement and consumption, affecting every aspect of modern life [26,27]. However, it presupposes a complex, interconnected economic system that is fragile in the face of various regulatory attempts [28]. For example, maritime transport (Figure 1) underpins the global economy, facilitating approximately 80% of international trade by volume (left pie chart in the bottom of Figure 1) and around 70% by value (right pie chart in the bottom of Figure 1), underscoring its critical role in the global movement of goods (Figure 1) [29]. Systemic vulnerabilities are weaknesses within a system that arise from its structure, interconnections, or dependencies, making it susceptible to cascading failures or disruptions when stressed [31]. These vulnerabilities are often hidden and emerge under specific conditions as in electronic-based solutions. Electronics-based solutions [32] present systemic vulnerabilities beyond the regulatory risks evident in the 2022 Russian sanctions [33] or the recent U.S. trade conflicts (April 2025) [34]. Unlike simpler mechanical systems, these technologies are inherently susceptible to disruptions in sensitive supply chains, cyberattacks, and electromagnetic pulses-creating layers of systemic vulnerability often overlooked in technological adoption decisions [22,35].Systemic vulnerabilities in complex system appears highly unstable-especially when considering isolated technical incidents, such as two small fires at Heathrow Airport which disrupted global air travel. In addition, the rapidly interconnected world, which must manage emerging complexity with tools that have not yet reached full maturity, becomes vulnerable to malicious actions such as the Mt. Gox Hack (2014).Resilience is the capacity of a system to absorb disturbances, adapt to changes, and maintain its core functions and structure in the face of stress or shocks [36]. As it is a desired goal, a question arises as to whether and how societies can thrive without the emerging complexity that has been imposed through technological solutions as well as the communication and cooperative policies that sustain global trade.Ensuring social thriving is critical, an optimization is required-one that is simple, resilient, self-sufficient, and capable of supporting at least the foundation of societal prosperity-through available adaptations [37,38].Section 2 analyzes the methodology used to approach the vulnerabilities inherent in complex systems, focusing on their susceptibility to disruptions. Section 3 delves into examples of governmental failures and technical failures, using the evolution of technology of vehicles and digital infrastructure as case studies to illustrate fragility in advanced technologies. Section 4 emerges the role of critical aspects of modern civilization: digital infrastructures and satellites. Section 5 explores future technological paradigms, weighing the promises and perils of automation, digital currencies, and interconnected systems arguing that progress is neither linear nor guaranteed. The discussion in Section 6 synthesizes these insights, proposing strategies for resilience at governance and technological levels. Finally, Section 7 concludes with recommendations for proactive design and planning to ensure robust systems, emphasizing the urgency of action during periods of stability.This study adopts a multidisciplinary approach to analyze the interplay between technological complexity, systemic vulnerabilities, and resilience in modern civilizations, with a focus on resource management perspectives. The methodology comprises three key components:• Historical and Comparative Analysis: Historical case studies, such as the collapse of the Roman Empire, Soviet Union and the Qing Dynasty (China) are examined to identify patterns of overextended infrastructure and administrative complexity leading to systemic failure. These are compared with contemporary examples (e.g., megacity resource management, global trade disruptions) to draw parallels and highlight recurring vulnerabilities.• Data-Driven Visualization:Quantitative data from global datasets (e.g., World Bank, Marine Traffic-cargo ship positions, Flightradar-air traffic, TeleGeography-submarine cable) are analyzed to illustrate the scale and fragility of interconnected systems. Visualizations are generated to map trade complexity, economic impacts, and cascading failures.• Qualitative Risk Assessment: Technical and governance failures are evaluated through qualitative frameworks, focusing on vulnerabilities in digital systems (e.g., ECUs in vehicles, cyber-hacks, CBDCs and resource distribution). Scenarios such as EMP attacks and trade wars are explored to assess cascading risks.Insights are drawn from real-world incidents e.g., Mt. Gox hack (February 2014) Heathrow fires (March 2025) and the blackout in Iberian Peninsula (April 2025) to propose adaptability strategies.The above examples were used for the revision of the pyramid of human needs. This mixed-methods approach emphasizes governance and technological perspectives to propose resilience frameworks.Limitations include the speculative nature of future risk scenarios, which however are addressed through transparent sourcing and conservative assumptions.The methodological steps of the paper, the examined issues and the conclusions are visualized in Figure 2. The Industrial Revolution and the Electronic Era established sophisticated infrastructures driven by economies of scale, rapid communication, global connectivity, and widespread access to knowledge. Evidently, global poverty rates dropped dramatically over the past century, a triumph humanity owes to these technological breakthroughs [39].Economies of scale and large-scale infrastructure have enabled the clustering of the population in major urban centers [40]. Megacity aqueducts [41], supply chains [26], industrial production, refineries, and critical infrastructure facilitate human coexistence [42]. However, these systems demand complex management, forming a fragile equilibrium that sustains societies. A deliberate or accidental failure in any major infrastructure, especially to the communication system which solves this puzzle, could immediately trigger an existential crisis.The vulnerability of the contemporary communication system, underpinned by the internet, is exemplified by approximately 1.4 million kilometers of submarine fiber-optic cables linking over 1,200 landing points worldwide [43]. Figure 3 Today, the discourse on climate change [55, 56], a narrative that remains under discussion and not fully understood due to its complexity and conflicting viewpoints [57,58,59,60,61], has led to policies aimed at reshaping the energy mix through the adoption of renewable energy sources. Even if the narrative of climate change and the associated technologies supporting it are subject to debate [62], the associated technologies introduce new challenges in their management due to their stochastic nature.The above vulnerabilities suggest that there is always the possibility that society could become trapped in a death spiral [63] of complexity, from which it would be very difficult to break free.Historically, excessive bureaucratic complexity and endemic corruption have precipitated the collapse of entire societies, as seen in Roman Empire, the Soviet Union and the late Qing Dynasty.Tainter argues that the collapse of the Roman Empire illustrates how overextended infrastructure and reliance on complex administrative systems precipitate societal decline [64]. He contends that the empire's dependence on intricate networks-such as extensive road systems, aqueducts, and a sprawling bureaucracy-demanded substantial resources to sustain. As economic returns diminished, these systems rendered the empire vulnerable to external pressures (e.g., barbarian invasions) and internal weaknesses (e.g., corruption) [65,66]. The rigid centralized administrative structure further constrained adaptability, as simplifying governance through decentralization was politically and culturally untenable, accelerating systemic failure.The Soviet Union (1922-1991) developed a highly centralized, bureaucratic system to manage its vast economy and diverse population, but this complexity fostered inefficiencies and corruption. Lengthy administrative processes, coupled with opaque resource allocation, enabled the elites to siphon resources, eroding public trust and economic stability [67]. By the 1980s, the system's rigidity stifled innovation and failed to address growing economic stagnation, culminating in the USSR's dissolution in 1991 [68].The Qing Dynasty in China succumbed to bureaucratic bloat and corruption, were intricate governance structures and rampant bribery undermined resource distribution and public welfare, particularly in urban centers. This weakened the dynasty's ability to respond to internal rebellions and external pressures, leading to its collapse in 1912 [69].The complexity of managing resources such as Water-Energy and Food nexus [70] in present megacities is a critical factor underpinning their sustainability and functionality, rendering them highly vulnerable to disruptions like tariffs and trade wars.Megacities, characterized by dense populations and intricate infrastructural networks, rely on efficient resource distribution systems that are often strained by global economic policies. For instance, tariffs can increase the cost of imported food in mega-cities which could be considered as food deserts [71,72,73]. Trade wars further complicate this by disrupting supply chains, as seen in the U.S.-China trade tensions affecting waterintensive agricultural exports [74].The interconnectedness of resource systems amplifies these risks, with energy shortages potentially cascading into water and food crises [75]. Moreover, the governance of these resources in megacities often involves multiple stakeholders, adding layers of complexity that tariffs can destabilize by altering economic incentives [76]. Consequently, such economic policies pose perilous threats to megacities' stability, where resource mismanagement could lead to existential challenges [77].Our interconnected world relies on the complexity of created synergies [78], as highlighted by the lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic. During this period, global trade was agitated, and global growth was halted as it is evident by Gross National Income (GNI) growth and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth. Therefore, these synergies promote advancement, but they also made systems vulnerable to unexpected disruptions [79] (Figure 4). While complexity in governance is often necessary for managing intricate systems, it can also harbor corruption, as the concealment of resources or procedures from public scrutiny may obscure unethical practices. When governmental systems are perceived as overly complex and subjective, they often fail to deliver timely resolutions, leading to a loss of public trust. 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David Chaum, Richard Carback, Jeremy Clark, Liu Chao · 11 authors
Abstract We revisit “silent coercion” where an adversary gains access to a voter’s credential without the voter’s knowledge in an E2E verifiable, coercion-resistant Internet voting system. We argue that in this setting, casting an intended vote is impossible since the cryptographic backend can no longer distinguish the voter and adversary. However, we affirm that the voter can still act to nullify adversarial ballots, which is preferable to inaction. We provide a new instantiation of nullification using zero-knowledge proofs and multiparty computation, which improves on the efficiency of the current state-of-the-art. We also demonstrate an example voting system—VoteXX—that uses nullification. Our nullification protocol can complement new and existing techniques for coercion resistance (which all require voters to hide cryptographic keys from the coercer), providing a failsafe option for voters whose keys leak.
The rapid proliferation of the decentralized systems has instigated the need of secure, scalable, and efficient systems of information management. Blockchain is not only immutable but also vulnerable and trusted and performs poorly in the aspects of scalability and high latencies and computation overheads. On the quest to find them, AI (Artificial Intelligence) can provide predictive mechanisms, optimization and anomaly detection, but to carry out its operations efficiently, it requires reputable datasets. This research paper discusses the way AI can be integrated with blockchain so as to expand decentralized data ecosystems. It applied four algorithms Federation Learning as a data training distribution method, reinforcing learning as a consensus optimization method, deep learning in detecting anomalies, and genetic algorithm resource optimization method. They showed a substantial improvement in performance: the throughput has improved by 37 per cent, the latency has reduced by 42 per cent, and the energy consumption has dropped by 28 per cent as compared to the initial blockchain based systems. In addition, the precision of the anomaly detection amounted to 94.6, which strengthens the credibility of decentralized data. It has been established by the comparative analysis with the corresponding works that the developed integration has demonstrated the greatest presence of scalability and resilience with the high standards of security. It is the conclusion of this paper to conclude that AI-Blockchain convergence is a ground-breaking location of secure intelligent and scalable data management. It is directly related to the cyber world through matters of industries such as healthcare, finance, internet of things and supply chain within which handling sensitive data and efficiency are mattered.
With the global emphasis on sustainable development, green finance has emerged as a critical driver for balancing economic growth and environmental protection. Decentralized financial instruments (DeFi), leveraging unique technological advantages and operational mechanisms, are reshaping the traditional risk transfer logic of banks in the green finance sector. This paper explores the core characteristics of decentralized green financial instruments and their applications in green bonds, carbon trading, and other domains. Through a combination of theoretical analysis and case studies, it details how these instruments reconstruct traditional risk transfer pathways, alter risk-sharing models, and influence banks' risk management systems and financial market stability. By providing insights for banks to optimize risk management strategies in the new financial ecosystem, this study highlights the transformative role of decentralized green financial instruments in reshaping the landscape of financial risk management and their promising future developments.
Accurate and efficient cryptocurrency price prediction is vital for investors in the volatile crypto market. This study comprehensively evaluates nine models—including baseline, zero-shot, and deep learning architectures—on 21 major cryptocurrencies using daily and hourly data. Our multi-dimensional evaluation assesses models based on prediction accuracy (MAE, RMSE, MAPE), speed, statistical significance (Diebold–Mariano test), and economic value (Sharpe Ratio). Our research found that the optimally fine-tuned TimeGPT model (without variables) demonstrated superior performance across both Daily and Hourly datasets, with its statistical leadership confirmed by the Diebold–Mariano test. Fine-tuned Chronos excelled in daily predictions, while TFT was a close second to TimeGPT for hourly forecasts. Crucially, zero-shot models like TimeGPT and Chronos were tens of times faster than traditional deep learning models, offering high accuracy with superior computational efficiency. A key finding from our economic analysis is that a model’s effectiveness is highly dependent on market characteristics. For instance, TimeGPT with variables showed exceptional profitability in the volatile ETH market, whereas the zero-shot Chronos model was the top performer for the cyclical BTC market. This also highlights that variables have asset-specific effects with TimeGPT: improving predictions for ICP, LTC, OP, and DOT, but hindering UNI, ATOM, BCH, and ARB. Recognizing that prior research has overemphasized prediction accuracy, this study provides a more holistic and practical standard for model evaluation by integrating speed, statistical significance, and economic value. Our findings collectively underscore TimeGPT’s immense potential as a leading solution for cryptocurrency forecasting, offering a top-tier balance of accuracy and efficiency. This multi-dimensional approach provides critical, theoretical, and practical guidance for investment decisions and risk management, proving especially valuable in real-time trading scenarios.
Manuel Uche-Soria, Antonio Martínez Raya, Alberto Muñoz Cabanes, Jorge Moya Velasco
Rapid depletion of fossil fuel reserves forces the global energy sector to transition to sustainable energy sources. Specifically, distributed energy markets have emerged in the renewable energy sector in recent years, partly because blockchain technology is becoming a successful way to promote secure and transparent transactions. Using its decentralized structure, transparency, and even pseudonymity, blockchain is increasingly adopted worldwide for large-scale energy trading, peer-to-peer exchanges, project financing, supply chain management, and asset tracking. The research comprehensively analyzes blockchain applications across multiple fields related to energy, bibliographically evaluating their transformative potential. In addition, the study explores the architecture of various blockchain systems, assesses critical security and privacy challenges, and discusses how blockchain can enhance operational efficiency, transparency, and reliability in the energy sector. The paper’s findings provide a roadmap for future developments and the strategic adoption of blockchain technologies in the evolving energy landscape for an effective energy transition.
Ovaj rad predstavlja razvoj prototipa decentralizirane društvene mreže temeljene na tehnologijama Web3. S obzirom na sve veće nepovjerenje korisnika prema tradicionalnim, centraliziranim društvenim mrežama, cilj je izraditi rješenje koje korisnicima omogućuje privatnost, sigurnost i vlasništvo nad vlastitim podacima. Aplikacija koristi blockchain Ethereum za upravljanje identitetom i interakcijama korisnika i Metamask za autentikaciju. Sadržaj se pohranjuje distribuirano putem sustava IPFS i mreže istorazinskih dionika Gun. Implementirane su funkcionalnosti poput objavljivanja sadržaja, spremanje objava, označavanje objava sa "sviđa mi se", komentiranja, slanja zahtjeva za prijateljstvo i drugih interakcija. Uz sve navedeno, aplikacija uključuje izravni (peer-to-peer) chat, te sustav za nagrađivanje korisnika putem ERC-20 tokena za aktivnosti, interakciju i kvalitetan sadržaj. Sustav je implementiran lokalno pomoću IPFS i GUN čvorova na dva uređaja. Postavljen je temelj za daljnju optimizaciju i širenje funkcionalnosti, kako bi se ostvarila stvarna, sigurna i decentralizirana mreža.
Sanyam Kaul, Manaswini Piduguralla, Gayathri Shreeya Patnala, Sathya Peri
Hyperledger Fabric is a leading permissioned blockchain framework for enterprise use, known for its modular design and privacy features. While it strongly supports configurable consensus and access control, Fabric can face challenges in achieving high transaction throughput and low rejection rates under heavy workloads. These performance limitations are often attributed to endorsement, ordering, and validation bottlenecks. Further, optimistic concurrency control and deferred validation in Fabric may lead to resource inefficiencies and contention, as conflicting transactions are identified only during the commit phase. To address these challenges, we propose a dependency-aware execution model for Hyperledger Fabric. Our approach includes: (a) a dependency flagging system during endorsement, marking transactions as independent or dependent using a hashmap; (b) an optimized block construction in the ordering service that prioritizes independent transactions; (c) the incorporation of a Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) within each block to represent dependencies; and (d) parallel execution of independent transactions at the committer, with dependent transactions processed according to DAG order. Incorporated in Hyperledger Fabric v2.5, our framework was tested on workloads with varying dependency levels and system loads. Results show up to 40% higher throughput and significantly reduced rejection rates in high-contention scenarios. This demonstrates that dependency-aware scheduling and DAG-based execution can substantially enhance Fabric's scalability while remaining compatible with its existing consensus and smart contract layers.
Marc Hübschke, Eugen Buss, Elmar Holschbach, Stefan Lier
Abstract Research on blockchain technology in supply chain management has gained significant attention in recent years due to its potential to address critical challenges such as transparency, traceability, and operational efficiency. Despite this interest, the relationship between blockchain implementation and its measurable success has not been thoroughly investigated. This study conducts a systematic literature review of 46 peer-reviewed papers published between 2008 and 2024, synthesizing current research on how blockchain performance is assessed within supply chains. By categorizing the findings across key success factors, research methodologies, and performance indicators, this study provides a structured understanding of blockchain’s role in SCM. Emerging from our review, we develop a dynamic evaluation framework that systematically integrates use cases, objectives, input criteria, research methodologies, and expected outcomes, illustrating their interdependencies. This framework demonstrates blockchain’s capacity to enhance supply chain performance through improved transparency, enhanced traceability, and strengthened sustainability practices. Furthermore, it provides a structured approach to assessing blockchain’s long-term viability, emphasizing its iterative nature, which allows organizations to refine and adapt their implementations in response to evolving business and regulatory landscapes. Our findings underscore the cross-industry applicability of blockchain technology, spanning various sectors and bridging both operational and strategic objectives. However, the analysis reveals significant research gaps, particularly in empirical studies validating blockchain’s long-term impact on supply chain resilience, sustainability, and multi-stakeholder collaboration. Additionally, inconsistencies in performance measurement approaches hinder the comparability of findings across studies. Addressing these gaps through future research will be essential to fully unlocking blockchain’s transformative potential in SCM and ensuring its effective integration into global supply chain ecosystems.
A machine-checked, sorry-free development in Lean 4 over Mathlib (about 1500 lines) that fills a gap in Mathlib — the dilogarithm Li2, which the library cites but does not define — and follows it into a quantum-mechanics problem. To the best of the author's knowledge, the first formalization in any proof assistant of: the real dilogarithm with Euler's reflection identity, Landen's transformation and the duplication formula; the golden-ratio ladder Li2(1/φ2) = π2/15 − ln2φ (derived from a 3×3 linear system, no five-term relation) and the Lee–Yang effective central charge c_eff = 2/5 (the simplest thermodynamic-Bethe-ansatz dilogarithm identity); the Clausen function Cl2 and Catalan's constant G = Cl2(π/2); the Fejér–Jackson inequality; the bound Cl2(θ) ≥ sin(θ)/2 by an asymptotics-free Abel summation; and the Margolus–Levitin and (an L1 form of the) Mandelstam–Tamm quantum speed limits. These assemble into the title theorem: the weight-2 zeta state (populations proportional to 1/n2 on equally spaced energy levels) has infinite mean energy and infinite energy variance — so both textbook speed limits say nothing — yet never reaches a state orthogonal to itself, because its autocorrelation is (6/π2)·Li2(e−iθ) and the dilogarithm has no zero on the unit circle. A clock with an unbounded energy budget that never ticks. Every identity is classical (Euler, Landen, Clausen, Fejér, Jackson, Mandelstam–Tamm, Margolus–Levitin); the contribution is the machine-checked development and its assembly. Every named theorem depends only on the three standard axioms (propext, Classical.choice, Quot.sound). Formalized with AI assistance (Claude, Anthropic); the mathematics and all claims are the author's responsibility.
The advancement in smart mobility communication technology allows intelligent vehicles to interconnect and communicate with each other to improve traffic safety and efficiency. However, the highly dynamic nature of the smart mobility network and vehicle behaviour creates the requirement for effective authentication systems to establish secure and reliable communication between vehicles. The implementation of a reputation system has been proposed to establish trust among untrusted vehicles, where the reliability of a propagated message is assessed based on the reputation of the sender vehicle. Thus, preventing malicious vehicles from potentially broadcasting misleading messages that can cause accidents or disrupt the network. This paper proposes a novel decentralised and dynamic reputation management and computation model based on a consortium blockchain and a multi-signature smart contract. The implementation of blockchain and a smart contract provides a secure and transparent framework for registering vehicles, submitting events, voting feedback, evaluating reputation, and blocking malicious vehicles. To demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed model, we conducted security and performance analyses. The results demonstrate how our model can provide resistance against various attacks, such as data tampering, message forging, self-promotion, vote duplication, bad-mouth, onoff, time-dependent, and collusion attacks.
Open access
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Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
John C. Moore, Marc Macias‐Fauria, Michael Wolovick
Key points • Academics, activists, and Arctic inhabitants are deeply concerned about cryosphere systems at imminent risk of collapse, and yet decades of "consequences-based" lobbying have failed to produce sufficient political will for deep decarbonization. • There are moral imperatives to search for tools that may help stabilise Arctic earth systems and to explore knowledge co-production and co-design with Arctic peoples to ensure both local and global benefits. • We propose a "compassionate harm reduction" paradigm, whereby climate scientists prioritise the well-being of humanity, and take responsibility to thoroughly understand any potential interventions that might minimise the harm from the consequences of climate change. A New Paradigm The prevailing "consequences-based paradigm" defines the role of climate scientists as informing the public about the negative effects of climate change, assuming this will mobilize political action to reduce emissions. Under this paradigm, research into strategies other than decarbonization is often seen as counterproductive, an argument advanced by Siegert et al. (2025) in their lead article, "Safeguarding the polar regions from dangerous geoengineering", in Frontiers in Science. Yet after half a century of alarm-raising, this paradigm has failed to generate the political will needed for deep decarbonization. This article presents insights from 27 academics, activists and Arctic inhabitants who propose an alternative: a "harm-reduction paradigm." We maintain that climate interventions research and decarbonization are not mutually exclusive. Instead of focusing solely on the problems, climate scientists should also explore all potential solutions to reduce harm to humanity. The effectiveness and risks of interventions remain uncertain, and only further research can address these questions – research that some, including Siegert et al. (2025) seek to halt. This perspective also carries implications for governance. Stewards of the Arctic Unlike Antarctica, the Arctic is more accessible, making it a more likely starting point for intervention field trials. It is not a Global Commons, and Arctic Peoples must be central to any decision-making. Preference from those in the mid-latitudes are secondary. The key question is how should decisions be made – through evidence or guesswork? Evidence includes both traditional knowledge and the scientific method, each of which has long produced valuable insights. Whether climate interventions make sense, pose risks, or are preferable to inaction remains unknown and cannot be determined without comprehensive research across legal, scientific, and technical domains. Pirita Näkkäläjärvi, President of the Sámi Parliament in Finland, states: "It is my personal opinion that we need to keep all options open and research climate interventions because of the risk of exceeding the goal of limiting global temperature rise to 1.5 degrees and the risk of crossing multiple climate tipping points" (Operaatio Arktis, 2023). Motivated by these concerns, the University of the Arctic has set up a review process for high latitude interventions (https://climateinterventions.org/), led by the Saami Council and incorporating both academic and traditional knowledge perspectives (Fig. 1). Gunn-Britt Retter, Head of the Arctic and Environmental Unit of the Saami Council, explains "The Saami Council acknowledges the need to face suggested intervention ideas and initiatives that are developed or are being developed. (...) It is our position that a rights-based perspective must be the foundation in any evaluation of intervention suggestions in relation to strengths and weaknesses and benefits and co-benefits.(...) Saami Council's participation in this project should not be interpreted as Saami Council's endorsement or support of the intervention suggestions assessed". Another core group interested in the future Arctic are the youth. Anni Pokela, strategic planner with Operaatio Arktis and a Gender Studies student at Helsinki University, asks: "Are we truly ready to accept the damage, the suffering that's unavoidable without climate intervention? Or are we going to give climate repair a chance?" In their lead article, Siegert et al. (2025) ask "why would a nation such as Greenland embrace a geoengineering solution to sea level rise" —since sea levels around Greenland's coasts are falling as the ice disappears. A good way to find out is to ask Greenlanders. Those of us that have readily identified several reasons for pursuing interventions research. For example, many Greenlanders have empathy and feel a sense of solidarity with low-income communities around the world who are already feeling the impacts of sea level rise. Furthermore, the ice itself is a global good which, if valued appropriately (Brown et al., 2021), would be highly rewarding for Greenland. Finally, declining sea levels impact Greenlanders, for instance through boat collisions with unmapped islets previously submerged. Challenges of Decarbonization There is near-universal agreement amongst scientists and policymakers that decarbonization is essential. The Earth is already at 1.5ºC above pre-industrial levels, and no climate intervention can work sustainably without rapid emissions cuts. Yet, glossing over the serious challenges involved is, at best, naive. Siegert et al. (2025) describe a scenario in which global temperature is stabilized at 0.9°C above preindustrial levels - a target long since past. While we agree that this "simple vision for Antarctica is appealing", it is also nearly impossible. Even in 2020, achieving net-zero required global investments in clean-energy and carbon-removal infrastructure exceeding $4 trillion annually by 2030 (IEA, 2021). With President Trump now actively reversing U.S. commitments to renewable energy, despite the U.S. being the world's largest historical emitter of greenhouse gasses, the likelihood of achieving rapid global decarbonization in time to meet climate goals is increasingly remote. Meanwhile, human activities continue to drive planetary warming – the most effective large-scale geoengineering experiment to date. Governance Moral hazard A widely touted argument against research into climate interventions, and used by Siegert et al. (2025), is that such research may reduce the likelihood of decarbonization. This is known as the "Mitigation Deterrence" or "Moral Hazard" argument. However, evidence is mixed: public attitudes show weak and variable support for this hazard, and there is equally strong evidence of the opposite effect (Reynolds 2014): that is, the idea of interventions can motivate people to take decarbonization more seriously. Furthermore, anticipating moral hazard may limit policymakers' options (Andrews et al., 2022). Support for intervention research is strongest among those suffering the worst climate impacts—especially in the Global South and among Indigenous Peoples (Sovacool et al., 2024). Motives and vested interests Opinion on geoengineering are often influenced by who funds the research and their motives. Who gains from Arctic intervention research? The fossil fuel and mineral extraction industries have clear interests in the Arctic, which holds an estimated 25% of global untapped gas reserves and 13% of oil, and large amounts of rare earth elements, such as 40% of global palladium (Borgerson, 2013). These resources become more accessible with reduced snow, ice cover or minimal sea ice, which also facilitates safer transport. Thus, resource extraction industries are unlikely to fund efforts to preserve the Arctic cryosphere intact, unless they are cynically assuming interventions will fail. Many institutions active in Arctic research, including the University of the Arctic and the University of Cambridge have published strong ethical statements rejecting support from such sources (University of Cambridge, 2023). The Precautionary Principle Environmental risks are often cited to oppose geoengineering research (e.g., Siegert et al., 2025). The Precautionary Approach has framed most environmental legislation over the last 30 years. Davis and Vinders (2025) examine how it might apply to geoengineering. In the case of intervention field trials, environmental risks are generally very small. However, perceived risk often includes concern over a "slippery slope" toward broader deployment. Davis and Vinders (2025) argue that political risk should be included when evaluating harms, but this assessment must consider both the risk of using an intervention and the risk of not using one – the "Moral Hazard of non-research." This latter risk is missing in both Siegert et al.'s review, and more broadly, such as in the EU advisory report (SAPEA, 2024). Risks of inaction include the socio-economic damages from crossing climate tipping points which are concentrated in the polar regions (Armstrong-McKay et al., 2022). Sticky slopes not slippery ones Does research inevitably lead to deployment – the so-called "slippery slope"? Not if research is ethically guided (e.g., AGU, 2024). There is a duty to report all findings, positive and negative, often required by funders. A roadmap to potential deployment involves many checkpoints along the way (e.g., Diamond et al., 2022). So far, the slope has proven "sticky," not slippery. For example, the Arctic Ice Project ceased sea ice albedo modification research due to toxicity concerns about hollow glass microspheres that they proposed using (https://srm360.org/news-reaction/arctic-ice-project-shuts-down/). Similarly, simulations suggest the retreat of the Sermeq Kujalleq (Jakobshavn Isbrae) glacier is unstoppable (Zhao et al., 2025). The Induction Fallacy Both decarbonization and climate interventions are extraordinarily challenging. Many intervention proposals will prove unworkable – due to feasibility, cost, timing, or being too risky. Whether this has already been demonstrated, as Siegert et al. (2025) claim, is debatable given how little research exists on most options (Fig. 1). Dismissing all climate interventions because some face serious challenges is a logical error, known as the Induction Fallacy. Siegert et al. examine only 5 of the 61 intervention ideas identified so far for the Arctic (https://climateinterventions.org), with more likely to emerge in future. Conversely, advocating a sole focus on carbon emissions reduction risks falling into "single action bias"; the tendency to favour one familiar solution while neglecting others that may also be necessary. Risk-risk assessment Any analysis of climate interventions must be framed as a risk-risk assessment, that is, comparing the risks and benefits of doing something versus doing nothing. Neither the present nor a past climate state can serve as a viable baseline; we must compare against plausible future scenarios. While research is still at an early stage for many intervention ideas, the literature on Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI) is relatively mature. It generally finds that projected impacts under SAI are less severe, and crucially more equitable, than those under future greenhouse gas climate scenarios. Supporting references (see supplementary material) point to economic benefits, an overwhelmingly positive cryospheric response, and net human health gains from reduced temperatures that outweigh risks from air pollution and from ozone depletion by a factor of 13 (Harding et al). Conclusions While scientific and public support for climate action is strong (Leiserowitz et al., 2023), the political will for large-scale emissions reductions remains insufficient. Siegert et al. (2025) frequently cite fossil fuel-funded opposition as a key barrier. While such interests have obstructed other major societal and economic changes in the past (e.g., workers' rights, environmental regulations), those changes still occurred. Hence, lack of climate action is likely not solely due to fossil fuel-funded opposition but to fossil fuels being integral to modern lifestyles (e.g., Lemaire, 2025). We argue that the "consequences-based paradigm" – the belief that warning the public will generate political action – has failed. After decades of warnings, emissions remain high. Worse, fear-based messaging may even boost support for right-wing parties (e.g., Nguyen et al., 2022), which typically oppose climate action. By contrast, research into climate interventions could offer much-needed optimism and agency. Our "harm-reduction paradigm" suggests that such research may strengthen public confidence in our ability to meet climate challenges, thereby fostering solidarity, expanding empathy, and ultimately increasing political support for decarbonization. Of course, we could be wrong. And even if we are right that climate interventions research boosts support for decarbonization, that does not necessarily mean interventions themselves are good ideas. Only more research can answer that. Yet, Siegert et al. (2025) claim that "further research into these techniques would not be an effective use of limited time and resources". Arguing to shut down an entire field of scientific research is an extraordinary claim, and requires extraordinary proof. Pointing to specific problems in individual techniques, as Siegert et al. do, is not sufficient. Further research may resolve those problems. The only potentially valid argument against all interventions research is political: that it might reduce motivation to decarbonize. But even setting aside the ethical concern of suppressing science for political reasons, this argument is unproven. It rests entirely on the same "consequences-based paradigm" of climate outreach. It is fair to say that the "consequences-based paradigm" has, after half a century, failed to deliver. Perhaps, it is time that we try compassionate harm reduction instead. Formal Analysis Yes Yes Yes Funding acquisition N/A N/A N/A Investigation Yes Yes Yes Methodology Yes Yes Yes Project administration Yes No No Resources N/A N/A N/A Software N/A N/A N/A Supervision N/A N/A N/A Validation N/A N/A N/A Visualization Yes No No Figure legend Figure 1. The methodology adopted by University of the Arctic for an evaluation of intervention ideas. The Saami Council are leading the indigenous knowledge stream but are engaging with other indigenous groups in the Arctic Council. Meetings include three distinct groups: traditional knowledge holders, indigenous politicians, and indigenous experts. The meetings are in a variety of formats, including formalized workshops, town hall and council meetings in addition to awareness raising and general capacity building.
Construction industry often faces challenges such as payment delays, contract disputes, and a lack of transparency and administrative efficiency. Smart contract technology based on blockchain offers an innovative approach to address these issues through transparent, automated, and tamper-resistant systems. This study explores various applications of blockchain and smart contracts in construction projects, including solutions for automated progress payments, digital contract management, quality improvement, and technology-based dispute resolution, using the Systematic Literature Review (SLR) method. Smart contract systems can execute payments automatically based on verified work progress, while blockchain technology ensures secure and immutable data recording. Additionally, integration with technologies such as Building Information Modeling (BIM) and the Internet of Things (IoT) enhances real-time project management. Despite offering numerous benefits, the implementation of these technologies still faces challenges such as regulatory uncertainty, infrastructure readiness, and the need for standardization. This study highlights that the adoption of blockchain and smart contracts holds significant potential to drive efficiency, fairness, and digital transformation in the construction sector.
Ovaj rad prikazuje dizajn i implementaciju decentralizirane aplikacije za kvizove koja spaja prednosti blockchain tehnologije s praktičnošću Web2 tehnologija. Koristeći hibridnu arhitekturu on-chain i off-chain obrade podataka. Korišteni su Angular, Ethers.js, MetaMask na frontendu, Node.js/Express i MongoDB na backendu te Solidity pametni ugovori na ethereum virtual machine (EVM)-kompatibilnoj mreži (Polygon Amoy za testiranje). Arhitektura uključuje QuizFactory za kreiranje ins- tanci, osnovni Quiz za besplatne sesije i proširivi QuizWithFee koncept za nagradni fond. Testiranjem je utvrđena funkcionalnost sustava, ali i ukazan je linearni porast troškova s porastom broja igrača i pitanja. Rezultat je na kraju funkcionalna apli- kacija za live kvizeve u kojem sudionici nemaju on-chain troškove, ključni ishodi su javno provjerljivi na blockchain-u, a visoko-frekventne interakcije ostaju izvan lanca radi boljeg korisničkog iskustva i nižih troškova; sustav je modula
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Gyuyeon Na, Minjung Park, Hyeonjeong Cha, Soyoun Kim · 9 authors
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Margarita Capretto, Martín Ceresa, Antonio Fernández Anta, Pedro Moreno-Sanchez · 5 authors
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