Dumitrel Loghin, Shuang Liang, S. Liu, Xiong Liu · 6 authors
Zero-knowledge proofs (ZKP) are becoming a gold standard in scaling blockchains and bringing Web3 to life. At the same time, ZKP for transactions running on the Ethereum Virtual Machine require powerful servers with hundreds of CPU cores. The current zkProver implementation from Polygon is optimized for x86-64 CPUs by vectorizing key operations, such as Merkle tree building with Poseidon hashes over the Goldilocks field, with Advanced Vector Extensions (AVX and AVX512). With these optimizations, a ZKP for a batch of transactions is generated in less than two minutes. With the advent of cloud servers with ARM which are at least 10% cheaper than x86-64 servers and the implementation of ARM Scalable Vector Extension (SVE), we wonder if ARM servers can take over their x86-64 counterparts. Unfortunately, our analysis shows that current ARM CPUs are not a match for their x86-64 competitors. Graviton4 from Amazon Web Services (AWS) and Axion from Google Cloud Platform (GCP) are 1.6X and 1.4X slower compared to the latest AMD EPYC and Intel Xeon servers from AWS with AVX and AVX512, respectively, when building a Merkle tree with over four million leaves. This low performance is due to (1) smaller vector size in these ARM CPUs (128 bits versus 512 bits in AVX512) and (2) lower clock frequency. On the other hand, ARM SVE/SVE2 Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) is at least as powerful as AVX/AVX512 but more flexible. Moreover, we estimate that increasing the vector size to 512 bits will enable higher performance in ARM CPUs compared to their x86-64 counterparts while maintaining their price advantage.
The Intelligent System of Emergent Knowledge (ISEK) establishes a decentralized network where human and artificial intelligence agents collaborate as peers, forming a self-organizing cognitive ecosystem. Built on Web3 infrastructure, ISEK combines three fundamental principles: (1) a decentralized multi-agent architecture resistant to censorship, (2) symbiotic AI-human collaboration with equal participation rights, and (3) resilient self-adaptation through distributed consensus mechanisms. The system implements an innovative coordination protocol featuring a six-phase workflow (Publish, Discover, Recruit, Execute, Settle, Feedback) for dynamic task allocation, supported by robust fault tolerance and a multidimensional reputation system. Economic incentives are governed by the native $ISEK token, facilitating micropayments, governance participation, and reputation tracking, while agent sovereignty is maintained through NFT-based identity management. This synthesis of blockchain technology, artificial intelligence, and incentive engineering creates an infrastructure that actively facilitates emergent intelligence. ISEK represents a paradigm shift from conventional platforms, enabling the organic development of large-scale, decentralized cognitive systems where autonomous agents collectively evolve beyond centralized constraints.
This conceptual paper contributes to the nascent Web3 marketing stream via offering a novel typology of Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) as blockchain-enabled digital offerings. Grounded in a customer-centric approach to marketing strategy, our 2 × 2 typology suggests that NFTs vary in terms of the value on offer (i.e. value-in-use/value-in-exchange) and the strategic focus pursued by firms/creators (i.e. transactional/relational). Four main types of NFTs thus emerge: 1. Validation certificates; 2. Digital replicas; 3. Immersion enablers; and, 4. Digital upgrades. For each NFT type, we discuss their distinctive features, the opportunities they offer and their shortcomings, before detailing their strategic implications. Our typology offers researchers and practitioners who want to engage with the Web3 space a solid grounding for understanding the implications of deploying different types of NFTs from a strategic marketing perspective.
Open access
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Service and Product Innovation
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
Consumer Behavior in Brand Consumption and Identification
This study investigates the integration of the Portuguese Citizen’s Card authentication with Hyperledger Fabric blockchain technology, addressing the challenge of bridging traditional government-issued digital identities with blockchain-based systems, particularly focusing on reducing barriers to Web3 adoption for users unfamiliar with decentralized technologies. The proposed solution leverages the Autenticação.gov Software Development Kit (SDK), developed by the Portuguese Agency for Administrative Modernization (AMA) to create a secure bridge between the Citizen’s Card authentication system and Hyperledger Fabric's permissioned blockchain framework. The study examines how this approach can facilitate the development of transparent, tamper-proof authentication systems suitable for critical applications such as e-voting and digital government services, and also feasible for on-premises systems. The findings suggest that integrating existing digital identity systems with blockchain technology can promote wider acceptance of decentralized solutions while maintaining security, privacy, and accessibility standards required for public sector applications.
Nikos Papatheodorou, George Hatzivasilis, Nikos Papadakis
Self-sovereign identity (SSI) is an emerging model for digital identity management that empowers individuals to control their credentials without reliance on centralized authorities. This work presents YouGovern, a blockchain-based SSI system deployed on Binance Smart Chain (BSC) and compliant with W3C Decentralized Identifier (DID) standards. The architecture includes smart contracts for access control, decentralized storage using the Inter Planetary File System (IPFS), and long-term persistence via Web3.Storage. YouGovern enables users to register, share, and revoke identities while preserving privacy and auditability. The system supports role-based permissions, verifiable claims, and cryptographic key rotation. Performance was evaluated using Ganache and Hardhat under controlled stress tests, measuring transaction latency, throughput, and gas efficiency. Results indicate an average DID registration latency of 0.94 s and a peak throughput of 12.5 transactions per second. Compared to existing SSI systems like Sovrin and uPort, YouGovern offers improved revocation handling, lower operational costs, and seamless integration with decentralized storage. The system is designed for portability and real-world deployment in academic, municipal, or governmental settings.
Web3 technology echoes the paradigm of a secure, transparent, and privacy-preserving decentralized internet. Unfortunately, this digital transformation has opened up new opportunities for cybercriminals, for example online gambling bookies can utilize the Blockchain Domain Name System (BDNS) running on Web3 as a way to avoid tracking and blocking. This analysis aims to map the potential threats from misuse of BDNS technology through a two-dimensional scenario matrix approach using two main types of variables: (1) Native Web3 integration into popular browsers, and (2) Level of BDNS adoption by online gambling sites. The four scenarios produced will describe various levels of risk that require different mitigation strategies, in certain combination conditions will create the highest threat conditions where the conventional domain name blocking system is no longer effective in blocking online gambling sites. The results of this study are expected to identify weak signals from the evolution of online gambling threats, as well as become a basis for government agencies or policy makers in preparing anticipatory steps in dealing with the dynamics of digital threats in the Web3 era.
The healthcare sector increasingly explores Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) and Health Web 3.0 Decentralized Applications (DApps) as promising solutions for patient-centric data management, data sovereignty, and privacy-preserving systems. Despite significant research at the intersection of blockchain and healthcare, current efforts predominantly address isolated technical challenges—focusing narrowly on specific mechanisms such as confidentiality, privacy, or individual smart contract vulnerabilities. Even cybersecurity assessments typically examine discrete attack vectors rather than comprehensive threat landscapes. This fragmented approach limits our ability to build trustworthy systems and delays real-world adoption, as stakeholders lack frameworks to holistically evaluate security posture. This study addresses this gap by conducting a comprehensive threat modeling analysis of Health Web 3.0 DApps, taking into account the complex and interconnected security challenges inherent in blockchain-based healthcare systems. We employ a multi-framework approach integrating LINDDUN threat modeling methodology, OWASP Top 10 Smart Contract Vulnerabilities catalog, and Threat Dragon analytical tool to systematically identify, categorize, and evaluate security risks across the entire application stack. Our analysis maps threats spanning smart contract design flaws, cross-chain interaction vulnerabilities, decentralized identity management weaknesses, unauthorized data access risks, and denial-of-service attack vectors. The primary contribution of this work is demonstrating the critical importance and practical value of holistic threat modeling in blockchain healthcare systems. Our findings reveal interdependencies between seemingly isolated vulnerabilities and show how comprehensive security assessment enhances data privacy protection, smart contract integrity, and overall application resilience. This research provides stakeholders with a systematic methodology for deriving trust in blockchain healthcare solutions, advancing both regulatory compliance and user confidence in decentralized medical data management systems.
Ensuring software quality in the Web3 ecosystem presents unique challenges due to its decentralized architecture and evolving technical landscape. While international standards such as the SQuaRE (Systems and software Quality Requirements and Evaluation) framework offer structured approaches for quality assurance, they are often perceived as overly theoretical and not directly applicable to blockchain-based applications. This study aims to translate these standards into actionable practices suitable for Web3 environments, thereby supporting compliance and fostering stakeholder trust. Using the Design Science Research methodology, complemented by Lean Startup principles, a practical quality assurance guide was co-developed through collaboration between VOH.CoLAB researchers and the Exeedme project team and inspired by the practical experience in gaming and digital assets trading blockchain-based platforms. The resulting guide includes a structured framework comprising eight testing domains, 16 sub-domains and 108 targeted tests, with the domains addressing critical features of blockchain software, including, functional suitability, integration, security, performance, usability, portability, recoverability and resilience. This work contributes to the operationalization of international quality standards in decentralized technology, promoting more resilient and trustworthy blockchain applications.
In blockchain networks, so-called "full nodes" serve data to and relay transactions from clients through an RPC interface. This serving layer enables integration of "Web3" data, stored on blockchains, with "Web2" mobile or web applications that cannot directly participate as peers in a blockchain network. In practice, the serving layer is dominated by a small number of centralized services ("node providers") that offer permissioned access to RPC endpoints. Clients register with these providers because they offer reliable and convenient access to blockchain data: operating a full node themselves requires significant computational and storage resources, and public (permissionless) RPC nodes lack financial incentives to serve large numbers of clients with consistent performance. Permissioned access to an otherwise permissionless blockchain network raises concerns regarding the privacy, integrity, and availability of data access. To address this, we propose a Permissionless Accountable RPC Protocol (PARP). It enables clients and full nodes to interact pseudonymously while keeping both parties accountable. PARP leverages "light client" schemes for essential data integrity checks, combined with fraud proofs, to keep full nodes honest and accountable. It integrates payment channels to facilitate micro-payments, holding clients accountable for the resources they consume and providing an economic incentive for full nodes to serve. Our prototype implementation for Ethereum demonstrates the feasibility of PARP, and we quantify its overhead compared to the base RPC protocol.
Adrian Victor VEVERA, Andreea Cătălina CRĂCIUN, Mihail Dumitrache, Ionut SANDU · 6 authors
The Domain Name System (DNS) remains a foundational component of the Internet infrastructure, which is frequently exploited by cybercriminals through increasingly diverse and sophisticated attack vectors.This paper explores the evolving cybersecurity challenges faced by domain name systems (DNSs) and their decentralized counterparts in the Web3 ecosystem, particularly the Ethereum Name Service (ENS), as such, it surveys both the established and novel attack patterns.Furthermore, it explores the implications of decentralized naming systems like the ENS, which introduced novel cybersecurity challenges within the Web3 environments and it highlights the future risks and possible research directions related to the transition to decentralized web services.This study provides a comparative analysis of the cyberattacks targeting the DNS and the ENS, highlighting the evolving threat landscape for each of the two ecosystems.By examining the architectural differences between the DNS and ENS, their common attack vectors, and their security mechanisms, it underscores both the distinct vulnerabilities inherent to each ecosystem and the overlapping risks they share.
web3 wallets are key to managing user identity on blockchain. The main purpose of a web3 wallet application is to manage the private key for the user and provide an interface to interact with the blockchain. The key management scheme ( KMS ) used by the wallet to store and recover the private key can be either custodial, where the keys are permissioned and in custody of the wallet provider or noncustodial where the keys are in custody of the user. The existing non-custodial key management schemes tend to offset the burden of storing and recovering the key entirely on the user by asking them to remember seed-phrases. This creates onboarding hassles for the user and introduces the risk that the user may lose their assets if they forget or lose their seedphrase/private key. In this paper, we propose a novel method of backing up user keys using a non-custodial key management technique that allows users to save and recover a backup of their private key using any independent sign-in method such as google-oAuth or other 3P oAuth.
Muhammad Iqbal, Kunal Raj, K.V. Narasimha Reddy, Mohd. Mudaseer Mazharuddin
In today's digital age, student academic data is still largely controlled by educational institutions, which creates major risks and limitations.Centralized systems are vulnerable to data loss due to natural disasters, political instability, or system failures.They also make it difficult for students to access or share their records when participating in exchange programs or pursuing lifelong learning across different platforms.To solve these issues, this paper introduces a decentralized approach where students have full control over their educational data.Using blockchain technology-specifically the Ethereum public network-and Web3 tools, we present DecentralEduChain, a framework that allows students to securely store and manage their academic records through smart contracts.Educational institutions can interact with these contracts via integrated Learning Management Systems (LMS), enabling both the reading and updating of student records without relying on centralized databases.This system not only enhances security and transparency but also empowers students with ownership of their data, making it easier to share academic credentials across institutions.The paper also outlines the practical steps for implementing the system, including smart contract creation and integration with LMS platforms, making it a promising solution for the future of educational data management.
In today’s fast-paced digital world, NFT have become mainstream, reaching a market value of $50 billion. They act as digital certificates of ownership of online resources, reshaping how we perceive ourselves to be on the digital realm. Our plan is to have a BidCraft NFT Hub, a marketplace where people can easily buy, sell and trade NFT. We simplify the process by using blockchain technology. For the user interface, we use web3.js for a smooth experience. In the background, Node.js and Express.js ensure smooth operation. We integrate MetaMask, a trusted digital wallet for account management and secure transactions. To ensure security and transparency in transactions, the platform relies on contract written in Solidity. Testing is done on the Hardhat network, which is planned to run on the Polygon blockchain in the testing environment. In summary, the BidCraft NFT Hub aims to make blockchain technology and NFTs accessible to everyone by leveraging the Polygon blockchain and prioritizing user friendliness while maintaining safety and security
Mauro Cambarieri, Claudia Alejandra Viadana, Nicolás García Martínez, Luis Vivas · 6 authors
This paper explores the potential of blockchain and Web3 technologies in the digital transformation of public entities, focusing on digital identity management and the issuance of verifiable credentials. Key concepts of these technologies, as well as W3C standards, are analyzed, highlighting their ability to ensure integrity, security, portability, and transparency in administrative processes. In the public sector, blockchain offers benefits such as the elimination of intermediaries, automation through smart contracts, asset tokenization, and improved interoperability. In education, the accelerated evolution of the labor market—driven by technological advancements and demands for dynamic specialization—has positioned micro-credentials as critical components for professional reinvention. However, their effective implementation requires overcoming challenges related to interoperability, security, and portability. This is where digital identity and verifiable credentials (VCs) emerge as key enablers of transformation. VCs streamline the issuance and verification of academic certifications, promoting employability and the portability of skills. The case study presented leverages the Digital Credentials Consortium (DCC) to implement VCs based on standards such as JSON-LD and decentralized identifiers (DIDs). This work outlines conceptual frameworks, technical implementation details, and contextual considerations for the adoption of Web3 technologies.
Abstract: The real estate sector faces persistent challenges,includingintermediary dependence, information asymmetry, fraud vulnerability, and limited liquidity,despite technological advancements in other industries. This paper presents the design, implementation, and evaluation of a blockchain-based solution addressing these challenges. Your platform, developed using Ethereum smart contracts, comprises a distributed property ledger, automated transaction processing, and property tokenization capabilities. Performance evaluation demonstrates substantial improvements over traditional methods: transaction times decreased by 90%, costs reduced by 80-90%, and security enhanced through immutable record-keeping. Property transfers that traditionally require weeks were executed in minutes, with smart contracts automating escrow management and document verification. The empirical results provide concrete evidence of blockchain's efficacy in real estate transactions and establish a framework adaptable across different property markets and regulatory environments
Blockchains support a rapidly growing digital economy. Through decentralization, they enable the ownership and transfer of digital assets without centralized intermediaries while resisting attacks, faults, and collusion. Yet decentralization is not guaranteed and must be sustained against external shocks. What design choices help blockchains maintain decentralization when disrupted? We find that resource flexibility, how easily consensus resources can be moved and redeployed, is key to sustained decentralization. Using three real-world shocks—China’s 2021 crypto mining ban, Hetzner’s 2022 shutdown of Solana validators, and Ethereum’s transition from proof-of-work to proof-of-stake—we show that blockchains whose consensus resources are more flexible recover decentralization faster. These findings offer actionable guidance. Blockchain designers should consider resource flexibility as a first-order design parameter. Operators should diversify infrastructure across jurisdictions to reduce vulnerability to localized shocks. Policymakers should be aware that regulations targeting blockchains can have unintended effects on decentralization.
Minh Tri Le, O. M. Harris, Charlotte Bennett, Fiona Greene
Amid the rapid development of Web3.0 technologies and blockchain infrastructures, the commercial real estate industry is experiencing a significant shift toward digitalization. This study proposes a tokenization framework for commercial real estate assets, grounded in the ERC-1400 standard. The system enables precise asset share registration via smart contracts and ensures regulatory compliance through on-chain KYC authentication and identity mapping mechanisms. To address liquidity challenges, an off-chain valuation oracle and a decentralized finance (DeFi) collateralization model are integrated into the architecture, enhancing the tradability of tokenized real estate assets. Simulation experiments and empirical analyses were conducted to evaluate title confirmation efficiency, asset liquidity, and operational controllability. The results demonstrate that, compared to conventional methods, the proposed system improved title confirmation efficiency by 99.6% (t = 327.4, p < 0.001), increased average daily transaction volume by 327% (χ² = 158.6, p < 0.001), achieved 100% transaction accuracy in 1,500 simulations, and successfully identified and intercepted 47 abnormal transactions via the KYC mechanism. These findings provide both a viable technical approach and theoretical basis for implementing real estate asset tokenization in practice, contributing to the secure and scalable integration of traditional assets into decentralized ecosystems.
Independent Researcher, USA, Damodar Bihani, Bright Chibunna Ubamadu, Signal Alliance Technology Holding, Nigeria · 6 authors
The integration of blockchain technology into the tokenization of real-world assets (RWAs) is revolutionizing how value is stored, transferred, and accessed globally. This paper proposes a scalable framework for cross-functional collaboration in Web3 product development focused on blockchain-based tokenized RWAs. Tokenization enables physical assets such as real estate, commodities, and intellectual property to be digitized into blockchain-based tokens, allowing for fractional ownership, increased liquidity, and enhanced accessibility. However, the successful development and deployment of such Web3 products require an interdisciplinary approach that combines technological innovation, legal compliance, financial modeling, and user experience design. Our framework addresses these needs by enabling seamless collaboration between developers, legal experts, financial analysts, and UX/UI designers throughout the product lifecycle. We present a modular architecture built on interoperable blockchain protocols such as Ethereum and Polkadot, integrating smart contracts, decentralized identifiers (DIDs), and oracles for real-time asset verification. The framework emphasizes agile product development practices and leverages decentralized autonomous organization (DAO) structures to facilitate decision-making and community governance. Furthermore, we explore how regulatory-compliant token standards, such as ERC-1400, can be incorporated to ensure adherence to jurisdiction-specific asset ownership and transfer laws. This study includes a case analysis of cross-functional product teams building tokenized real estate platforms and carbon credit marketplaces, demonstrating how scalable collaboration can accelerate time-to-market and improve transparency, trust, and user adoption. Our findings highlight that such a collaborative framework significantly reduces technical debt and improves legal and financial risk mitigation. The framework also enhances stakeholder alignment through integrated project management tools and on-chain documentation. By offering a structured, scalable, and adaptable approach, this framework positions Web3 product teams to unlock the full potential of tokenized RWAs in a decentralized economy. It serves as a critical guide for developers, entrepreneurs, regulators, and investors aiming to leverage blockchain technology in building trustworthy, scalable, and cross-functional Web3 applications.
Modern blockchain applications are often constrained by a trade-off between user experience and trust. Chainless Apps present a new paradigm of application architecture that separates execution, trust, bridging, and settlement into distinct compostable layers. This enables app-specific sequencing, verifiable off-chain computation, chain-agnostic asset and message routing via Agglayer, and finality on Ethereum - resulting in fast Web2-like UX with Web3-grade verifiability. Although consensus mechanisms have historically underpinned verifiable computation, the advent of zkVMs and decentralized validation services opens up new trust models for developers. Chainless Apps leverage this evolution to offer modular, scalable applications that maintain interoperability with the broader blockchain ecosystem while allowing domain-specific trade-offs.
This article explores the potential of Web3 and decentralized applications (dApps) to revolutionize digital banking. It explores how blockchain technology transforms traditional banking through distributed ledger systems that enhance transparency, security, and user autonomy. The technical architecture of Web3 banking solutions is detailed, including blockchain networks, smart contracts, and emerging applications like decentralized lending protocols, cross-border payment systems, and asset tokenization. While these technologies address significant limitations in conventional banking systems, such as excessive fees, settlement delays, and centralized control, challenges persist in regulatory compliance, scalability, interoperability, and user experience. The integration of artificial intelligence and quantum-resistant cryptography represents promising developments that could further enhance decentralized financial systems. As the blockchain ecosystem matures, financial institutions that embrace these technologies stand to gain competitive advantages through operational efficiencies and enhanced customer value.
A persistent semantic gap separates the low-level revert data emitted by smart contracts from the high-level explanations Web3 users need when a transaction fails. Existing automated analyzers treat such reverts as hints of hidden vulnerabilities and do not tell users what actually went wrong. To close this gap and give users useful feedback, I present ErrorExplainer, an automated error-explanation framework rather than another bug detector. ErrorExplainer takes a novel two-phase approach. A lightweight static analysis of verified source code lifts every transaction-reverting statement into a canonical error representation of an origin function, a guard condition, and an expected error message. At runtime, when a failure occurs, ErrorExplainer first checks the invariant part of the error data with the error representation of the called function. If no hit appears, it expands the candidates to call traces until a match is found and then shows the matched record as a clear, human-readable explanation. The evaluation results show that ErrorExplainer could effectively identify 6284 normalized error records from a reverting-related dataset of SC-Bench. The high information completeness (0.952) and matching fitness (0.954 and 0.604 at the function and trace levels, respectively) indicate that the extracted error context of ErrorExplainer can provide more understandable information to users on failed operations.
Leonidas Theodorakopoulos, Alexandra Theodoropoulou, Christos Klavdianos
The rapid growth of digital platforms has fundamentally reshaped network and viral marketing, profoundly transforming how information spreads across social networks and influences consumer behavior. This comprehensive review synthesizes theoretical, computational, and ethical perspectives into an integrated narrative, providing novel insights into the mechanisms driving information diffusion within contemporary interactive marketing. By integrating foundational concepts from social network theory, advanced graph models, and behavioral dynamics, the paper demonstrates how the interplay between network structures, influencer behaviors, and AI-driven algorithms significantly redefines traditional marketing paradigms. A distinctive theoretical contribution of this study lies in its innovative combination of Big Data analytics with AI-based predictive modeling, explicitly revealing how real-time algorithmic personalization not only enhances marketing effectiveness but also creates new ethical tensions surrounding misinformation, algorithmic bias, and consumer vulnerability. Addressing recent calls for greater theoretical originality and narrative coherence in interactive marketing research, this review explicitly highlights how these insights resolve critical theoretical puzzles and clarify contemporary ethical dilemmas. Additionally, the paper identifies emerging trends—including Web3 marketing, decentralized platforms, and neuroscience-driven targeting—offering clear future research directions. Through its integrative, narrative-driven framework, this study significantly advances interactive marketing theory, providing essential guidance for scholars and practitioners navigating the evolving complexities of digital influence.
Kazokutchi is an artistic project created by So Kanno, Akihiro Kato, and Takemi Watanuki in 2022. The installation combines robot-based digital artificial life forms, NFTs, and a blockchain-based community. Its origins can be traced back to the ideas underlying cellular automata and issues raised by evolutionary robotics. Combined with the ideas of Web3, blockchain, and NFTs, this project unfolds a vision of forthcoming social constructs created by fluid, yet well-organized, communities.