Equitable distribution is the process of dividing marital property fairly upon divorce.The confusion surrounding the categorization of Bitcoin, a type of virtual currency that can be obtained and transferred anonymously, frustrates courts' ability to properly value divorcing parties' assets and determine a fair distribution of marital property.This Recent Development argues that North Carolina should clearly define Bitcoin as a security.First, a clear categorization of Bitcoin will notify parties that Bitcoin is a reportable asset for equitable distribution proceedings.Second, recognizing Bitcoin as a security may subject Bitcoin to increased securities regulations.Increased regulation allows for better reporting of Bitcoin transactions, which will help courts and divorcing parties discover and value bitcoins.Courts that correctly understand the value of each party's assets will be better able to determine a truly equitable distribution of property.
The underlying values inherent in the creation of bitcoins are those of decentralization and accessibility. The horizontal power structure is an integral part of bitcoins’ architecture – this paper seeks to find a feasible alternative to status quo in order to preserve these characteristics. First, we look at the harms of monopolies and how the concentration of bitcoins is exceptionally harmful to its continued existence. Second, we expose the inadequacies of the existing regulatory frameworks, and discuss how status quo militates against the foundational ideology of bitcoin as a non-institutional cryptocurrency. Third, we undertake a comparative study of the existing regulatory regimes to identify legal and regulatory issues surrounding bitcoins. Finally, we propose a solution to the concern of centralization by discussing the relationship between law, code and the market, and discussing existing coded solutions that may be further improved upon to prevent such monopoly
Project development in a power enterprise always needs to authorize external devices access to the enterprise intranet for testing. In order to avoid an external device with a virus and pose a security risk to the power information system, external devices should have strict security assessment before access the enterprise intranet. But after the security assessment, the device user still be possible to change the platform configuration. Remote attestation is one of important measures when two sides need to communicate. It is concernful to attest the remote platform is trusty but not revealing the any private information of the platform. For this reason, we designed a novel remote anonymous attestation protocol based on TCM. The proposed protocol does not need extra zero knowledge proof and the involvement of the third trusted party and the composite signature scheme is proved secure against existential forgery on adaptively chosen message. So this protocol has better security and execution property.
[NOTE: This paper was written in late 2014 and early 2015. It is relevant given the continued movement of Bitcoin toward the mainstream, exemplified by El Salvador's adoption of Bitcoin as legal tender in June 2021.] After a slow beginning in 2009, the digital currency Bitcoin has edged closer to the mainstream, and regulators are scrambling to determine what to do with it. So far, they have focused on harms that its use creates, such as easy money laundering and sales of illicit goods. But Bitcoin’s ability to grease the wheels of crime is not the only risk we should worry about. Rather, due to its status as decentralized, open-source software, Bitcoin poses a risk that money has not historically been subject to – the risk that the money will just stop working one day due to a technology or basic governance problem. Illuminating the importance of reliable money to our society, this paper unpacks the operational risks generated by Bitcoin’s very structure, such as the inherent vulnerabilities of software to bugs and attacks, the governance problems spawned by its decentralized structure and open-source nature, and the lack of monetary expertise of the coders who run the currency. Explicitly considering how each operational risk impacts Bitcoin’s status as money, I conclude that the aggregation of Bitcoin’s operational risks means that it is simply not durable enough to serve as money – even if it becomes widely accepted and achieves a stable value. With hundreds of millions of dollars in investments now pouring into Bitcoin and the larger virtual currency ecosystem, and with more and more prominent individuals jumping daily on the Bitcoin bandwagon, this paper urges regulators and policy-makers to specifically address Bitcoin’s critical operational risks as they design the soon-to-come regulations for virtual currencies.
Can an exchange be “dark,” so that orders are not displayed, while simultaneously trustworthy, so that the execution of trades and flow of information occur as promised? SEC actions against dark pools suggest cause for concern, and regulators seem to be moving towards requiring more disclosure. Yet there is a clear tension: trading order information is widely exploited. Therefore, institutional investors have a strong interest in keeping pre-trade information about large trades hidden. Secrecy-preserving proofs of correctness can be used to build trust without revealing unnecessary information. By performing operations on obfuscated representations of orders (perhaps encrypted or otherwise hidden), a zero knowledge proof can be provided, allowing anyone to verify correctness of trades. Crucially, this can be done without revealing any information beyond this correctness. This technology can be usefully applied to construct provably trustworthy dark pools. Additional practical protocols relax the definition of “zero knowledge" to reveal limited information, providing necessary transparency for efficient market operation while limiting information that can be exploited by observers. Coupled with Trusted Computing hardware, these protocols can provide an excellent balance of practicality with secrecy
This paper explores the legal character of the Bitcoin and other emerging "virtual currencies," and the legal and policy implications of Bitcoin trading. It observes that these "cryptocurrencies" exhibit different legal characteristics depending on the context in which they are examinedwhether transactional law, tax law, or criminal law, for example. The paper argues that the appropriate legal analogue for classifying Bitcoins should be investment and commercial notes, since this characterisation would lead to the application of an appropriate and effective body of transactional and regulatory law to Bitcoins.
A purely anti-node non-peer-to-peer version of electronic money would allow online payments to be sent directly from one person to another without going through a financial institution and node promoters such as digital and gold-miners. Digital signatures provide part of the solution, but the main benefits are lost if a trusted third party is still required to prevent double-spending. We propose a solution to the double-spending problem using an anti-node non-peer-to-peer network which is not only distributed but encrypted to the core of the gene. The network timestamps transactions by hashing them into an ongoing chain of hash-based genesis-concept combined with military grade chain-reinforced-encryption using AES, SHA, RSA and custom algos, forming a record that cannot be changed without redoing the genesis-concept. The longest chain not only serves as proof of the sequence of events witnessed, but proof that it came from the largest pool of CPU power. As long as a majority of CPU power is controlled by nodes that are not cooperating to attack the network, they'll generate the longest chain and outpace attackers. The network itself requires minimal structure. Messages are broadcasted on a best effort basis, and nodes can leave and re-join the network at will, accepting the longest proof-of-work chain as proof of what happened while they were gone. However, in the proposed model, the central authority server itself acts as the node and represents the network transport layer by itself which enables it to not to be dependent on individual nodes, and the crypto-formulation continuous at server level. By this process, the dependency on nodes are ruled out and the server (the executioner, in this case) gets all the bits combined in one platform from the beginning to the end using enhanced salting layer, providing the facility of de-centralized defacto standard e-payments within nano seconds or less i.e., account to account transfer using one central block processing schema.
W artykule zwrócono uwagę na wybrane zagrożenia związane z internetowym systemem płatności za pomocą kryptowaluty bitcoin. Poruszone zostały zagadnienia związane z anoniowością w sieci Bitcoin, pozyskiwaniem bitcoinów, prawdopodobieństwem podwójnego wydania środków (ang. double spending), ryzykiem inwestycji w kryptowalutę oraz ryzykiem AML.
There is yet any official guidance on the financial reporting of Bitcoin transaction from the standard setters as the crypto-currency become increasingly popular and tax accounting guidance begin to appear in 2014. Designed as a decentralized currency, Bitcoin will not become a reporting currency and will instead complement fiat money. We argue that the accounting principle of faithful representation requires interpreting the economic substance for financial reporting that varies with reporting entity: trading firms recognize Bitcoin like a foreign currency and measure the revenue, or expense, at the equivalent amount of the reporting currency; digital currency exchanges recognize Bitcoin as goods in line with tax accounting treatment. An Economica paper by Radford (1945) describing cigarette being used as commodity money in a POW camp has alluded to this economic basis. This paper applies accounting principle to a practical issue and contributes to the thinking process which may help standard setter issue an interpretation.
This paper analyzes Bitcoin and associated mining pools. Participants may decide to join a mining pool as an income smoothing device. Such participants are risk averse whereas other Bitcoin participants are risk taking.
Jason M. Gordon, Jennifer E. Chapman, Benjamin W. Akins
Bitcoin is rapidly increasing in use throughout the world. Instrumental to the Bitcoin system, the process for introducing new bitcoin into the system is known as “mining.” Mining involves the use of powerful computer systems and complex, computational algorithms to verify or validate prior bitcoin transactions. The reward for successfully undertaking this process is the creation and award of new bitcoin to the miner. Bitcoin mining has become a tedious and difficult process. The race to verify transactions, and thereby earn bitcoin, necessitates more sophisticated processes for verification and greater computational power. Many bitcoin miners band together in groups called “pools” to create a powerful mining platform. Some miners invest time and effort to build or maintain a suitable computer system, while others passively provide money or other resources toward the creation of the mining system. Many such mining pools have grown to allow individuals to collectively contribute effort to the transaction verification process in exchange for an interest in the proceeds from the mining activity. The bitcoin mining pool has largely escaped regulation. This paper argues that the mining pool should be regulated under the existing federal securities regulation regime.
Entendemos por inteligencia colectiva una forma de inteligencia que surge de la colaboración y la participación de varios individuos o, siendo más estrictos, varias entidades. En base a esta sencilla definición podemos observar que este concepto es campo de estudio de las más diversas disciplinas como pueden ser la sociología, las tecnologías de la información o la biología, atendiendo cada una de ellas a un tipo de entidades diferentes: seres humanos, elementos de computación o animales. Como elemento común podríamos indicar que la inteligencia colectiva ha tenido como objetivo el ser capaz de fomentar una inteligencia de grupo que supere a la inteligencia individual de las entidades que lo forman a través de mecanismos de coordinación, cooperación, competencia, integración, diferenciación, etc. Sin embargo, aunque históricamente la inteligencia colectiva se ha podido desarrollar de forma paralela e independiente en las distintas disciplinas que la tratan, en la actualidad, los avances en las tecnologías de la información han provocado que esto ya no sea suficiente. Hoy en día seres humanos y máquinas a través de todo tipo de redes de comunicación e interfaces, conviven en un entorno en el que la inteligencia colectiva ha cobrado una nueva dimensión: ya no sólo puede intentar obtener un comportamiento superior al de sus entidades constituyentes sino que ahora, además, estas inteligencias individuales son completamente diferentes unas de otras y aparece por lo tanto el doble reto de ser capaces de gestionar esta gran heterogeneidad y al mismo tiempo ser capaces de obtener comportamientos aún más inteligentes gracias a las sinergias que los distintos tipos de inteligencias pueden generar. Dentro de las áreas de trabajo de la inteligencia colectiva existen varios campos abiertos en los que siempre se intenta obtener unas prestaciones superiores a las de los individuos. Por ejemplo: consciencia colectiva, memoria colectiva o sabiduría colectiva. Entre todos estos campos nosotros nos centraremos en uno que tiene presencia en la práctica totalidad de posibles comportamientos inteligentes: la toma de decisiones. El campo de estudio de la toma de decisiones es realmente amplio y dentro del mismo la evolución ha sido completamente paralela a la que citábamos anteriormente en referencia a la inteligencia colectiva. En primer lugar se centró en el individuo como entidad decisoria para posteriormente desarrollarse desde un punto de vista social, institucional, etc. La primera fase dentro del estudio de la toma de decisiones se basó en la utilización de paradigmas muy sencillos: análisis de ventajas e inconvenientes, priorización basada en la maximización de algún parámetro del resultado, capacidad para satisfacer los requisitos de forma mínima por parte de las alternativas, consultas a expertos o entidades autorizadas o incluso el azar. Sin embargo, al igual que el paso del estudio del individuo al grupo supone una nueva dimensión dentro la inteligencia colectiva la toma de decisiones colectiva supone un nuevo reto en todas las disciplinas relacionadas. Además, dentro de la decisión colectiva aparecen dos nuevos frentes: los sistemas de decisión centralizados y descentralizados. En el presente proyecto de tesis nos centraremos en este segundo, que es el que supone una mayor atractivo tanto por las posibilidades de generar nuevo conocimiento y trabajar con problemas abiertos actualmente así como en lo que respecta a la aplicabilidad de los resultados que puedan obtenerse. Ya por último, dentro del campo de los sistemas de decisión descentralizados existen varios mecanismos fundamentales que dan lugar a distintas aproximaciones a la problemática propia de este campo. Por ejemplo el liderazgo, la imitación, la prescripción o el miedo. Nosotros nos centraremos en uno de los más multidisciplinares y con mayor capacidad de aplicación en todo tipo de disciplinas y que, históricamente, ha demostrado que puede dar lugar a prestaciones muy superiores a otros tipos de mecanismos de decisión descentralizados: la confianza y la reputación. Resumidamente podríamos indicar que confianza es la creencia por parte de una entidad que otra va a realizar una determinada actividad de una forma concreta. En principio es algo subjetivo, ya que la confianza de dos entidades diferentes sobre una tercera no tiene porqué ser la misma. Por otro lado, la reputación es la idea colectiva (o evaluación social) que distintas entidades de un sistema tiene sobre otra entidad del mismo en lo que respecta a un determinado criterio. Es por tanto una información de carácter colectivo pero única dentro de un sistema, no asociada a cada una de las entidades del sistema sino por igual a todas ellas. En estas dos sencillas definiciones se basan la inmensa mayoría de sistemas colectivos. De hecho muchas disertaciones indican que ningún tipo de organización podría ser viable de no ser por la existencia y la utilización de los conceptos de confianza y reputación. A partir de ahora, a todo sistema que utilice de una u otra forma estos conceptos lo denominaremos como sistema de confianza y reputación (o TRS, Trust and Reputation System). Sin embargo, aunque los TRS son uno de los aspectos de nuestras vidas más cotidianos y con un mayor campo de aplicación, el conocimiento que existe actualmente sobre ellos no podría ser más disperso. Existen un gran número de trabajos científicos en todo tipo de áreas de conocimiento: filosofía, psicología, sociología, economía, política, tecnologías de la información, etc. Pero el principal problema es que no existe una visión completa de la confianza y reputación en su sentido más amplio. Cada disciplina focaliza sus estudios en unos aspectos u otros dentro de los TRS, pero ninguna de ellas trata de explotar el conocimiento generado en el resto para mejorar sus prestaciones en su campo de aplicación concreto. Aspectos muy detallados en algunas áreas de conocimiento son completamente obviados por otras, o incluso aspectos tratados por distintas disciplinas, al ser estudiados desde distintos puntos de vista arrojan resultados complementarios que, sin embargo, no son aprovechados fuera de dichas áreas de conocimiento. Esto nos lleva a una dispersión de conocimiento muy elevada y a una falta de reutilización de metodologías, políticas de actuación y técnicas de una disciplina a otra. Debido su vital importancia, esta alta dispersión de conocimiento se trata de uno de los principales problemas que se pretenden resolver con el presente trabajo de tesis. Por otro lado, cuando se trabaja con TRS, todos los aspectos relacionados con la seguridad están muy presentes ya que muy este es un tema vital dentro del campo de la toma de decisiones. Además también es habitual que los TRS se utilicen para desempeñar responsabilidades que aportan algún tipo de funcionalidad relacionada con el mundo de la seguridad. Por último no podemos olvidar que el acto de confiar está indefectiblemente unido al de delegar una determinada responsabilidad, y que al tratar estos conceptos siempre aparece la idea de riesgo, riesgo de que las expectativas generadas por el acto de la delegación no se cumplan o se cumplan de forma diferente. Podemos ver por lo tanto que cualquier sistema que utiliza la confianza para mejorar o posibilitar su funcionamiento, por su propia naturaleza, es especialmente vulnerable si las premisas en las que se basa son atacadas. En este sentido podemos comprobar (tal y como analizaremos en más detalle a lo largo del presente documento) que las aproximaciones que realizan las distintas disciplinas que tratan la violación de los sistemas de confianza es de lo más variado. únicamente dentro del área de las tecnologías de la información se ha intentado utilizar alguno de los enfoques de otras disciplinas de cara a afrontar problemas relacionados con la seguridad de TRS. Sin embargo se trata de una aproximación incompleta y, normalmente, realizada para cumplir requisitos de aplicaciones concretas y no con la idea de afianzar una base de conocimiento más general y reutilizable en otros entornos. Con todo esto en cuenta, podemos resumir contribuciones del presente trabajo de tesis en las siguientes. • La realización de un completo análisis del estado del arte dentro del mundo de la confianza y la reputación que nos permite comparar las ventajas e inconvenientes de las diferentes aproximación que se realizan a estos conceptos en distintas áreas de conocimiento. • La definición de una arquitectura de referencia para TRS que contempla todas las entidades y procesos que intervienen en este tipo de sistemas. • La definición de un marco de referencia para analizar la seguridad de TRS. Esto implica tanto identificar los principales activos de un TRS en lo que respecta a la seguridad, así como el crear una tipología de posibles ataques y contramedidas en base a dichos activos. • La propuesta de una metodología para el análisis, el diseño, el aseguramiento y el despliegue de un TRS en entornos reales. Adicionalmente se exponen los principales tipos de aplicaciones que pueden obtenerse de los TRS y los medios para maximizar sus prestaciones en cada una de ellas. • La generación de un software que permite simular cualquier tipo de TRS en base a la arquitectura propuesta previamente. Esto permite evaluar las prestaciones de un TRS bajo una determinada configuración en un entorno controlado previamente a su despliegue en un entorno real. Igualmente es de gran utilidad para evaluar la resistencia a distintos tipos de ataques o mal-funcionamientos del sistema. Además de las contribuciones realizadas directamente en el campo de los TRS, hemos realizado aportaciones originales a distintas áreas de conocimiento gracias a la aplicación de las metodologías de análisis y diseño citadas con anterioridad. • Detección de anomalías térmicas en Data Centers. Hemos implementado con éxito un sistema de deteción de anomalías térmicas basado en un TRS. Comparamos la detección de prestaciones de algoritmos de tipo Self-Organized Maps (SOM) y Growing Neural Gas (GNG). Mostramos como SOM ofrece mejores resultados para anomalías en los sistemas de refrigeración de la sala mientras que GNG es una opción más adecuada debido a sus tasas de detección y aislamiento para casos de anomalías provocadas por una carga de trabajo excesiva. • Mejora de las prestaciones de recolección de un sistema basado en swarm computing y odometría social. Gracias a la implementación de un TRS conseguimos mejorar las capacidades de coordinación de una red de robots autónomos distribuidos. La principal contribución reside en el análisis y la validación de las mejoras increméntales que pueden conseguirse con la utilización apropiada de la información existente en el sistema y que puede ser relevante desde el punto de vista de un TRS, y con la implementación de algoritmos de cálculo de confianza basados en dicha información. • Mejora de la seguridad de Wireless Mesh Networks contra ataques contra la integridad, la confidencialidad o la disponibilidad de los datos y / o comunicaciones soportadas por dichas redes. • Mejora de la seguridad de Wireless Sensor Networks contra ataques avanzamos, como insider attacks, ataques desconocidos, etc. Gracias a las metodologías presentadas implementamos contramedidas contra este tipo de ataques en entornos complejos. En base a los experimentos realizados, hemos demostrado que nuestra aproximación es capaz de detectar y confinar varios tipos de ataques que afectan a los protocoles esenciales de la red. La propuesta ofrece unas velocidades de detección muy altas así como demuestra que la inclusión de estos mecanismos de actuación temprana incrementa significativamente el esfuerzo que un atacante tiene que introducir para comprometer la red. Finalmente podríamos concluir que el presente trabajo de tesis supone la generación de un conocimiento útil y aplicable a entornos reales, que nos permite la maximización de las prestaciones resultantes de la utilización de TRS en cualquier tipo de campo de aplicación. De esta forma cubrimos la principal carencia existente actualmente en este campo, que es la falta de una base de conocimiento común y agregada y la inexistencia de una metodología para el desarrollo de TRS que nos permita analizar, diseñar, asegurar y desplegar TRS de una forma sistemática y no artesanal y ad-hoc como se hace en la actualidad. ABSTRACT By collective intelligence we understand a form of intelligence that emerges from the collaboration and competition of many individuals, or strictly speaking, many entities. Based on this simple definition, we can see how this concept is the field of study of a wide range of disciplines, such as sociology, information science or biology, each of them focused in different kinds of entities: human beings, computational resources, or animals. As a common factor, we can point that collective intelligence has always had the goal of being able of promoting a group intelligence that overcomes the individual intelligence of the basic entities that constitute it. This can be accomplished through different mechanisms such as coordination, cooperation, competence, integration, differentiation, etc. Collective intelligence has historically been developed in a parallel and independent way among the different disciplines that deal with it. However, this is not enough anymore due to the advances in information technologies. Nowadays, human beings and machines coexist in environments where collective intelligence has taken a new dimension: we yet have to achieve a better collective behavior than the individual one, but now we also have to deal with completely different kinds of individual intelligences. Therefore, we have a double goal: being able to deal with this heterogeneity and being able to get even more intelligent behaviors thanks to the synergies that the different kinds of intelligence can generate. Within the areas of collective intelligence there are several open topics where they always try to get better performances from groups than from the individuals. For example: collective consciousness, collective memory, or collective wisdom. Among all these topics we will focus on collective decision making, that has influence in most of the collective intelligent behaviors. The field of study of decision making is really wide, and its evolution has been completely parallel to the aforementioned collective intelligence. Firstly, it was focused on the individual as the main decision-making entity, but later it became involved in studying social and institutional groups as basic decision-making entities. The first studies within the decision-making discipline were based on simple paradigms, such as pros and cons analysis, criteria prioritization, fulfillment, following orders, or even chance. However, in the same way that studying the community instead of the individual meant a paradigm shift within collective intelligence, collective decision-making means a new challenge for all the related disciplines. Besides, two new main topics come up when dealing with collective decision-making: centralized and decentralized decision-making systems. In this thesis project we focus in the second one, because it is the most interesting based on the opportunities to generate new knowledge and deal with open issues in this area, as well as these results can be put into practice in a wider set of real-life environments. Finally, within the decentralized collective decision-making systems discipline, there are several basic mechanisms that lead to different approaches to the specific problems of this field, for example: leadership, imitation, prescription, or fear. We will focus on trust and reputation. They are one of the most multidisciplinary concepts and with more potential for applying them in every kind of environments. Besides, they have historically shown that they can generate better performance than other decentralized decision-making mechanisms. Shortly, we say trust is the belief of one entity that the outcome of other entities’ actions is going to be in a specific way. It is a subjective concept because the trust of two different entities in another one does not have to be the same. Reputation is the collective idea (or social evaluation) that a group of entities within a system have about another entity based on a specific criterion. Thus, it is a collective concept in its origin. It is important to say that the behavior of most of the collective systems are based on these two simple definitions. In fact, a lot of articles and essays describe how any organization would not be viable if the ideas of trust and reputation did not exist. From now on, we call Trust an Reputation System (TRS) to any kind of system that uses these concepts. Even though TRSs are one of the most common everyday aspects in our lives, the existing knowledge about them could not be more dispersed. 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As a country where the economic system still depend on financing of the public sector, the expectation that decentralization policy in Indonesia can improve significantly society welfare has not been fulfilled yet. Happened in Yogyakarta which has special authority in control government affairs. Constitution no 13 years 2012 about DIY privileges consist of 5 things like filling the positions, seat, job and authorities governor and vice governor, institutional affairs, culture affairs, land affairs, and spatial affairs. With the constitution expected DIY government can guarantee right of society to live in prosperity. However, the expectation still can not fulfilled either. This study aims to identify and explain the policy configuration of DIY Privileged Funds and determine the contribution of the DIY privileged funds in public welfare acceleration. The research type used is a qualitative approach. Data collection methods technique is dept interview and elite interviews, and documentation.
Svetlana Jovanović, Srđan Milovanović, Jelena Mandić, Sinisa Jovović
The health system is one of the most complex systems in any country. Each state has an obligation to take care and care about the health of its population. The health care system includes the health infrastructure that provides a range of programs and services, and provides health care to individuals, families and communities. The health system must ensure the physical, geographical and economical accessiblity and affordability of integrated and quality health care. It should also provide for the development of health personnel, finance sustainability, decentralization of management and financing of health care and placing the citizens at the centers of the health system. The purpose of the health care system is the preservation and improvement of human health by providing health services, modern as well as traditional medicine, in an efficient manner and at the same time accessible and acceptable to the people. Due to its importance and impact on the population of each country, as well as its large economic impact, the government implemented a series of measures in planning and managing the health care system to ensure stable funding and rational and a quality health care delivery system, and all this in order to provide within the available resources a basic health care. In all the countries, the aging of the population and the introduction of new and expensive technologies present a constantly increasing cost of health care delivery. Modern health care systems differ from each other mainly in the methods of raising funds for health care, as well as in methods of payment for the service providers in the health sector. Problems of health care systems rarely, if ever, can be solved forever. As countries develop, their health care systems must respond to new challenges.
The decentralization of school governanceâoften blended with market dynamicsâhas become a prominent strategy for lifting the performance of urban schools. This approach rests upon several assumptions, primarily that freedom from bureaucratic regulation will strengthen teacher community and result in more effective allocation of instructional resources. But do small autonomous high schools host such favorable social-organizational features? What drives collaborative relationships among teachers in decentralized schools? And do these relations help to account for between-school and between-teacher variation in teacher trust and shared responsibility for student learning? To examine these core questions I draw on social network theory as a theoretical frame and build from the literature on the social organization of efficacious schools. Survey data were collected from 392 teachers in 20 small site-managed charter and pilot high schools located in Los Angeles. First, I used p2 network modeling to determine the extent to which a teacherâs position in the school organization and personal characteristics predicted their instructional support relationships. Second, to examine the influence of these instructional support relationships on a teacherâs perceptions of normative culture in their schools, I estimated hierarchical linear models (HLM) estimating collective responsibility and relational trust as functions of teacher position in the school organization, teacher personal characteristics, and teacher- and school-level network measures of the instructional support relationships.Teachersâ choice of colleagues to whom they turn for support to improve their teaching practice reflected not only leadersâ efforts to shape teacher collaboration, but also preferences for forming ties with a colleague based on their personal characteristics. Teachers were more likely to seek advice to improve their teaching practice from colleagues who taught the same subject. However, teachers were less likely to seek advice from the more experienced teachers in the school. The likelihood of an instructional advice relationship was greater when teachers were of the same race. Teachersâ perceptions of normative culture were influenced by the distribution of these social resources in the school, in that uneven distribution of advice and support relationships was detrimental for a sense of shared responsibility for student learning but conducive to a high level of trust in the group. For individual teachers, their collaborative activity conditioned the perceptions further: those teachers most often approached for support by colleagues held weaker perceptions of the groupâs overall shared responsibility. This approach advances the study of teacher professional community to incorporate the âdyadâ as a focus, honing in on an essential building block of cohesive social organizations. The study also demonstrates meaningful variation among teachers within the same school in how they perceive normative culture. The findings contribute to the literature on teacher professional community and have implications for policymakers, districts and school leaders.
Artykuł porusza problem identyfikacji (w oparciu o rozkład Benforda) nietypowych transakcji w sieci Bitcoin. Dla przykładowo wybranych adresów portfeli Bitcoin porównano rozkład Benforda z rozkładem częstotliwości występowania poszczególnych cyfr na pierwszej najbardziej znaczącej pozycji w kwotach transakcji związanych z tymi adresami. Rozkłady te nie były zgodne z rozkładem Benforda. Zwrócono uwagę na konieczność zachowania dużej ostrożności przy analizowaniu transakcji za pomocą narzędzi statystycznych takich jak rozkład Benforda. Brak zgodności z rozkładem Benforda w żadnym wypadku nie jest równoznaczny z prowadzeniem działalności niezgodnej z prawem. Z drugiej strony, zgodność z rozkładem Benforda nie stanowi gwarancji tego, że nie występują nieprawidłowości.