To discuss the decision making problem of optimal production in supply chain enterprises, by taking a two-stage supply chain with one supplier and one retailer as the research objective and considering emissions trading, the profit models of both centralized and decentralized supply chains were proposed with logical proof. The conclusions show that given finance demand for products, carbon-trading policy enables members of the supply chain to make more money from investing carbon emissions. In addition, in concentration decision, emission reduction effort best that in decentralized supply chain and all members' profit will grow up if the retailer provide the supplier with appropriate subsidies. Furthermore, customs' low-carbon awareness provides a boost for emission reduction efforts and leads to more benefits to the enterprises
In this issue, we present two very different papers written in two very different styles. The first is a survey of the multiple timescales method for approximating solutions to differential equations. Multiple timescale methods are common in the literature and an integral part of many graduate programs. However, like riding a bicycle, you need some practice, experience, and insight to use it properly and have meaningful results. The second is an exposition on the Mountain Pass Lemma and related mathematical ideas underlying the existence of saddle points. Despite its name, the second article is no ordinary hike through the hills. In “Profits and Pitfalls of Timescales in Asymptotics,” author Ferdinand Verhulst presents a survey of multiple timescale methods. A colleague of mine once sarcastically pointed out that a tremendous amount of insight can be gleaned from the observation that in almost all problems, parameters are either larger than one or smaller than one, leading to an asymptotic approximation in one form or another. However, one does not have to look far to find problems where it is hard to handle the resulting asymptotic series using a simple Taylor series. Multiple timescales can resolve these problems, but the challenge remains of how to know what the multiple timescales should be without having special knowledge of the problem. Verhulst does an admirable job presenting the basic ideas behind determining timescales a priori using two basic concepts: normal forms and bifurcation theory. In the former case, one transforms the problem into a simpler expression to reveal underlying timescales. In the latter case, understanding the dynamics of a system in terms of bifurcations reveals the qualitative structure of the solution and therefore the timescales. Thus, the author puts order to a body of knowledge that can often appear to students as a disjoint collection of tricks for special problems. In “Mountain Passes and Saddle Points,” author James Bisgard develops the Mountain Pass Lemma of Ambrosetti and Rabinowitz which specifies sufficient conditions for the existence of saddle points. Beginning with accessible examples of smooth functions $F: R^2 \rightarrow R$, we can think of $F$ as the height of the landscape. The central element of this manuscript is a very clear proof of the Mountain Pass Lemma, which essentially states that if there is a local minimum in a valley surrounded by a mountain range and there is a point somewhere beyond the mountain range that is lower than the local minimum, then with an additional special requirement, it can be shown that there must be a mountain pass (saddle point) somewhere. While it may seem that there should always be a mountain pass without any additional requirements, the authors present some counterexamples early in the paper to show that this is not a trivial issue. (I could not resist the urge to fire up my tablet and explore some of the sample surfaces.) The special requirement is the Palais--Smale condition, which is the seemingly peculiar condition that every sequence $x_n$ having two properties, (1) that the height above these points is bounded and (2) that the $\| \nabla F(x_n) \|$ approaches zero, must have a convergent subsequence. The author goes on to extend the Mountain Pass Lemma to domains of any finite dimension and from there to Hilbert spaces. Finally, the author uses the concepts involved in the proof to develop methods for finding saddle points. In summary, the Education section in this issue has something for everyone. The first offering focuses on methods and techniques and would be ideal for a graduate course on perturbation methods or applied mathematics. The second paper is analytic, anchored to theorems and proofs but having ample discussion. It would find a home in an undergraduate and graduate real analysis course. Both take a fresh look at classic subjects in mathematics and could be used to liven up traditional courses in most undergraduate and graduate programs.
Ecologists warn that the rapid evolution occurring as a result of high-intensity commercial fishing could have significant economic and ecological effects. So far, fishery managers do not take this rapid evolution (called fisheries-induced evolution or FIE) into consideration when determining fishery policy. I model the interactions between the genetics, population structure, and economics of the fishery in order to determine how beneficial altering the fishery managers decision framework to include fisheries induced evolution would be to fishery profit and yield. My model is based on North-East Arctic Cod, which are long lived and for which an abundance of information exists, including proof of FIE. I compare the steady state reached by a `myopic' fishery manager who sets effort and mesh size policy while ignoring evolution, to the steady state reached by a fishery manager who dynamically optimizes his strategy with the knowledge of how evolution will respond. This paper shows that accounting for evolution can increase steady state profits by 29-34%, however this benefit decreases and is eventually eliminated as the discount rate increases from zero. An important auxiliary benefit to accounting for evolution is the effect optimal management has on fishery biomass, maturation rates, and yield.
In this paper the authors present important aspects of local autonomy seen through the lenses of decentralization and regionalization. It shows that local finance can contribute to community development only to the extent that the law provides financial autonomy so that the administration can attract European funds for local projects.
Tehniskās attīstības rezultātā mums ir iespēja izvēlēties izdevīgākus, ērtākus un drošākus norēķinu veidus. Tomēr esošais normatīvais regulējums nespēj aptvert visus jaunus institūtus. Līdz ar to daudzās jomās, tostarp nodokļu, rodas neskaidrības par tiesību normu piemērošanu.\nSamērā jauna virtuālā valūta bitcoin var tikt izmantota darījumos kā maksāšanas līdzeklis. Tā nodrošina iespēju veikt transakcijas ātri un izdevīgi, vienlaicīgi pasargājot savas sistēmas lietotājus no konfidenciālās informācijas izpaušanas trešajām personām. Diemžēl ES līmeni nav specifiska regulējuma attiecībā uz virtuālajām valūtām. Tajā pašā laikā bitcoin tiesiskais statuss ir izšķirošs PVN piemērošanā darījumiem, kur tie ir izvēlēti par maksāšanas līdzekli.\nAutors analizēja gan esošu ES regulējumu PVN un finanšu tirgus jomā, gan 20 ES dalībvalstu oficiālo nostāju, gan doktrīnā paustas atziņās par virtuālo valūtu. Tādā veidā tika iegūts pilns priekšstats par bitcoin tiesisko statusu. Analīzes rezultāti ļāva izdarīt pamatotus secinājumus par esošā regulējuma piemērošanas iespējam un par nepieciešamību pēc jauna regulējuma ES līmenī.
The English version of this paper can be found at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2709713 Italian Abstract: La tecnologia fondamentale del protocollo Bitcoin, conosciuta come blockchain, è emersa recentemente in tutta la sua straordinaria portata innovativa, teoricamente in grado di riconfigurare le nostre attuali interazioni economiche, politiche e sociali. Sebbene l'interesse accademico per questa tecnologia sia ormai crescente, finora non è stata ancora divulgata un'analisi esaustiva delle sue applicazioni dal punto di vista politologico. Questa ricerca si propone di discutere i punti essenziali di una governance decentralizzata fondata sulla blockchain, che sfida in varia misura i meccanismi tradizionali della autorità statale, della cittadinanza e della democrazia. In particolare, la ricerca si pone l'obiettivo di verificare la performance della blockchain e delle piattaforme decentralizzate come strumenti iperpolitici, in grado cioè di gestire interazioni sociali su ampia scala e di destituire eventualmente le autorità centrali tradizionali. L'analisi evidenzia i rischi relativi a posizioni dominanti di natura privatistica negli ecosistemi distribuiti, che potrebbero spogliare i cittadini dei loro diritti e permettere l'insorgere di una società globale senza stato. Se gli utopisti tecnologici sollecitano la destituzione di qualsiasi autorità centrale, questa ricerca difende invece il ruolo dello Stato come necessario punto di coordinazione nella società civile e dimostra come la decentralizzazione attuata attraverso algoritmi e sistemi di consenso distribuito costituisca una teoria organizzativa, non una teoria politica autonoma. English Abstract: The core technology of Bitcoin, the blockchain, has recently emerged as a disruptive innovation with a wide range of applications, potentially able to redesign our interactions in business, politics and society at large. Although scholarly interest in this subject is growing, a comprehensive analysis of blockchain applications from a political perspective is severely lacking to date. This paper aims to fill this gap and it discusses the key points of blockchain-based decentralized governance, which challenges to varying degrees the traditional mechanisms of State authority, citizenship and democracy. In particular, the paper verifies to which extent blockchain and decentralized platforms can be considered as hyper-political tools, capable to manage social interactions on large scale and dismiss traditional central authorities. The analysis highlights risks related to a dominant position of private powers in distributed ecosystems, which may lead to a general disempowerment of citizens and to the emergence of a stateless global society. While technological utopians urge the demise of any centralized institution, this paper advocates the role of the State as a necessary central point of coordination in society, showing that decentralization through algorithm-based consensus is an organizational theory, not a stand-alone political theory.
Bitcoin is a virtual currency based on the P2P network. Because of decentralization, anonymity, stability and other advantages, Bitcoin develops rapidly. In order to cope with increasingly wide application fields of bitcoin, this research designs bitcoin's payment based on the IC card, which improves its safety and convenience. According to Bitcoin's unique utilization, we've designed and achieved the documental structure of Bitcoin IC card and mutual authentication between PSAM card and IC card. With the combination of IC card private key and user's private key leading to account's private key, it will be safer to private key. Besides using merge-avoidance algorithm when trading improves the security of the account.
Oppgaven analyserer noen sentrale skatterettslige sider ved bruk av BitCoin etter norsk rett. Problemstillingene vil også ha relevans for andre kryptovalutaer såfremt de fungerer på samme måte.
Given that the global crisis is a cyclical phenomenon that directly affects the company's existence, this adaptation is a condition more than necessary to carry out an activity in a reliable way. Adaptation involves choosing innovative solutions that can withstand market in the current context, as the use of virtual currency Bitcoin as an alternative method in order to remove barriers, given that Bitcoin, a virtual currency created six years ago is not supported or controlled by any government or central bank and is freely traded, fluctuating depending on demand.
cAMP signaling and the control of Schwann cell fate: The ubiquitous second messenger cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) controls a variety of cellular responses in a cell type-specific and stimulus-dependent manner through an elaborate network of signaling intermediaries that connect stimulation of cell membrane receptors (typically G protein-coupled receptors, GPCRs) to transcription factor activation. Schwann cells (SCs) are highly responsive to cAMP throughout their lifespan, as extensive research has shown that SC survival, lineage specification, proliferation and differentiation into myelin-forming cells require cAMP signaling. The first evidence concerning the relevance of cAMP to SC function was documented in the 1970s with the discovery that mitotic cell division of isolated SCs was enhanced by cAMP-stimulating agents. Further mechanistic studies indicated that cAMP acts together with growth factors such as neuregulin to synergistically increase the rate of S-phase entry. In addition, cAMP has been known since the 1980s to directly drive the expression of proteins and lipids specific to the myelin sheath, including protein zero, periaxin, myelin associated glycoprotein (MAG) and galactocerebroside (Jessen et al., 1991). Yet, it was not until recent years that the molecular basis of cAMP-mediated signal transduction in SCs began to be understood. As described below, emerging data from independent in vitro and in vivo approaches have highlighted the identity of some key molecular players operating both upstream and downstream of cAMP biosynthesis that act in conjunction with other signals to differentially control SC proliferation and differentiation. It is understood that myelination in SCs is an inducible process sensitive to extracellular signals. Whereas oligodendrocytes autonomously turn on the expression of myelin-related genes upon or even when deprived of axon contact, SCs tend to remain indefinitely undifferentiated despite maintaining extensive contact with axons. Examples provided by in vitro myelination studies and models of nerve regeneration in vivo have shown that some SCs may effectively extend their processes along those of axons and form a basal lamina, a pre-requisite for myelination, yet still do not proceed to form a myelin sheath. If axon contact is not sufficient for myelination, what are the factors limiting the process? In a recent study, we argued that one such factor is cAMP, as activation of cAMP signal transduction in SCs is sufficient to bundle and synchronize the differentiating responses of axon-associated SCs in such a way as to accelerate and greatly enhance myelin formation in vitro (Bacallao and Monje, 2015). By promoting the transition from an immature (proliferative) to a differentiated (growth arrested) state, cAMP acts in concert with, but still independently of, other axonal signals such as neuregulin to initiate myelin membrane wrapping. Indeed, cAMP seems to function as an on/off control switch for myelination, as the simple removal of the cAMP stimulus is sufficient to readily suppress the expression of myelin-associated genes and shift the SC's phenotype back to an immature proliferative state that resembles the one derived through dedifferentiation in response to nerve injury (Monje et al., 2010). Though at first glance it may seem contradictory to assert that a single second messenger could positively control proliferation and differentiation, a specific cellular outcome is achieved via the use of distinct and independent signaling mechanisms (Figure 1A). Whereas the synergistic effect of cAMP on SC proliferation is achieved through gating or cross-talk with signals emanating from ligand-activated receptor tyrosine kinases such as neuregulin-activated ErbB/HER receptors (Monje et al., 2008), the effect of cAMP on differentiation is direct and seems not to require the concurrent activation of receptor tyrosine kinase pathways. The use of separate transduction elements also contributes to the specificity of outcome. As such, SC proliferation rather than differentiation relies on the activation of the transmembrane adenylyl cyclase (tmAC)-dependent, protein kinase A (PKA)-dependent pathway. SC myelination, by contrast, seems to be controlled by non-canonical cAMP signaling, as this process is mediated by effectors and upstream activators that have been relatively understudied in comparison to the classical tmAC-PKA pathway. Novel transduction elements reported to control myelination include: (1) the exchange protein activated by cAMP (EPAC), which is a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for the small GTP-binding protein Rap1 and transduces cAMP signals through direct binding to cAMP (Bacallao and Monje, 2013); (2) the soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC), which is an ubiquitous forskolin- and GPCR-insensitive adenylyl cyclase subtype that generates cAMP in various cell compartments (Bacallao and Monje, 2015); and (3) the adhesion receptor Gpr126, which is a highly conserved orphan GPCR that signals via G protein activation and cAMP to control myelination in vivo (Mogha et al., 2013). These signal transduction molecules represent attractive targets to control the state of differentiation that is conducive to myelination independently of the control of proliferation.Figure 1: Balancing Schwann cell (SC) fate via cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP).A mechanistic model for the differential control of SC proliferation and differentiation by cAMP signals based on available data (A) and a suggested general strategy for otimizing cAMP-mediated, SC-dependent regeneration and myelination (B). Krox-20, a cAMP-dependent transcription factor that is a master regulator of myelination; O1: The myelin lipid galactocerebroside; EPAC: exchange protein activated by cAMP; GPCR: G protein-coupled receptor; PKA: protein kinase A; sAC: soluble adenylyl cyclase; tmAC: transmembrane adenylyl cyclase.Manipulating and optimizing cAMP signaling in SCs for therapeutic applications: Our improved understanding of cAMP regulation of SC fate, along with the well-recognized role of cAMP in promoting axon growth in different types of neurons (Spencer and Filbin, 2004), can be exploited to delineate novel approaches to improve the outcome of SC-mediated nerve repair. The basic argument discussed herein postulates that balancing proliferation and differentiation through differential targeting of the cAMP signaling system may have an impact on the extent to which endogenous or transplanted SCs promote peripheral and central axon regeneration and myelination, thus contributing to functional repair. SCs have been grafted in the injured or dysmyelinated CNS and PNS for decades on the assumption that they can foster axon growth and subsequently form a myelin sheath to insulate regenerated and/or spared axons. Because the benefits of SC transplantation can be improved significantly if additional treatments are provided, attempts have been made to combine SC transplants with modulators of intracellular cAMP levels to augment nervous tissue repair (Fortun et al., 2009). One advantage of targeting the cAMP signaling system is that a single therapeutic approach can potentially improve various aspects linked to functional repair. Another advantage is that many of the molecular players within this system lend themselves suitable to pharmacological intervention; in addition, extensive information is available on their mechanism of action at the cellular and molecular levels. Considering the sophistication of cAMP networks, the potential for cross-talk, and the multiple cellular targets that are expected to react to cAMP stimulation, one may reason that any given cAMP therapy should be tailored to a desired cellular outcome. Most studies performed so far have relied on the use of broad-spectrum cAMP-stimulating agents administered either locally or systemically [see (Knott et al., 2014) for a recent review]. Though useful for proof of principle and feasibility assessment, this type of traditional approach may limit our understanding of the mechanism of action by which a given treatment promotes repair. An example is provided by a SC transplantation study in the contused spinal cord which showed a dramatic increase in axon growth and myelination within the SC transplants upon co-administration of dibutyryl-cAMP (a non-hydrolyzable cAMP analog) and rolipram (a phosphodiesterase, PDE, IV inhibitor); yet, whether the effect of cAMP was mediated by the SCs, the neurons or both could not be defined simply on the basis of the results obtained (Pearse et al., 2004). The implementation of a cAMP-based strategy designed to modulate the rate and/or extent of myelin formation by SCs, alone or while concurrently preventing myelin loss, seem in principle rather straightforward based on our current knowledge on how the initiation and maintenance of myelination is controlled by cAMP. Yet, a strategy for SC-mediated nerve repair is more challenging, as treatment should balance at least two independent events: (1) promotion of axonal growth, which can be achieved by targeting cAMP-dependent pathways within the SCs and/or the neurons; and (2) promotion of myelination, which can be achieved by targeting pathways within the SCs. Novel research in the SC field has suggested that axon regeneration and SC differentiation are highly interdependent events (Jessen and Mirsky, 2008). Whereas the initiation and maintenance of an immature SC phenotype may foster axon growth, a premature or exacerbated differentiation of the SC may determine a poor or suboptimal regenerative response. The axon growth-promoting benefits of the SCs themselves are expected to be reduced upon their differentiation into myelin-forming cells. Not only do SCs cease to proliferate, migrate and secrete neurotrophic factors as they undergo differentiation, but the expression of myelin-specific proteins such as MAG on their surface may elicit a stop signal for axonal growth, a phenomenon which is particularly relevant in the context CNS regeneration. The present line of reasoning implies that several independent parameters should be considered when optimizing cAMP therapies for SC-mediated repair and myelination. These parameters include: (1) the properties and specificity of the cAMP-inducing treatment on downstream effectors, (2) the possibility of positive or negative cross-talk of cAMP signaling with other pathways; (3) the timing of administration and the duration of the cAMP stimulus; (4) the expected cell type-specific outcome of cAMP elevation in SCs and neurons; and (5) the effect of environmental or context-specific factors. Multiple tools currently available offer an exceptional opportunity to fine-tune cAMP signaling into a desired cellular outcome. Selective targeting and specificity of signaling is plausible if we understand that cAMP does not act as a unitary signaling pathway but orchestrates many differentially regulated pathways that are built around a common second messenger. First generation cAMP-modulating agents, which offered low or little power for target discrimination, can nowadays be replaced by the wide range of chemical agents (activators and inhibitors) with potential to distinguish among distinct cAMP-specific PDEs, adenylyl cyclase subtypes and downstream cAMP effectors. Novel pathway-specific, cell permeable cAMP derivatives offer the possibility to potently and selectively manipulate PKA and EPAC activation within living cells (Holz et al., 2008). We and others have used some of these analogs to more selectively control the rate of proliferation (via PKA) and differentiation (via EPAC) of SCs in vitro. Isoform-specific EPAC antagonists have also become available, which brings the unique potential to block EPAC signaling while maintaining PKA-initiated pathways. Differential targeting of tmAC and sAC activities can also provide a feasible route for selective pathway modulation based on their clearly different modes of activation and inhibition. Non-pharmacological treatments such as electrical stimulation, which is known to stimulate sAC, may contribute to modulating the potency and pathway specificity through cAMP in selected cell populations. In optimizing the timing and duration of treatment, one should consider that SC differentiation may counterbalance axon growth. Thus, cAMP therapies aimed to increase myelination may be better implemented independently of those aimed to increase axon regeneration or alternatively, during the later stages of the regeneration process. Additive or synergistic effects on SC-mediated axon regeneration may be achieved if treatments aimed at enhancing SC proliferation (by targeting SCs) are coupled to those aimed at enhancing axon growth (by targeting the neurons) as long as these are provided while concurrently halting or delaying SC differentiation (Figure 1B). A faster or more efficient myelination may be derived from the synchronization of the differentiating responses expected to result from cAMP elevation in SCs, if a similar phenomenon is observed during nerve development or repair in vivo. Despite no evidence so far indicates that the environment per se would preclude cAMP-induced SC proliferation and/or differentiation, the scenarios may differ considerably in light of the expected effects of cAMP on axon regeneration in PNS and CNS neurons. To conclude, our significantly expanded understanding of cAMP signal transduction in SCs offers a unique opportunity for new therapeutic developments for SC-mediated nervous tissue repair. A re-interpretation of already available data in the context of new discoveries in signal transduction research is also needed, as the field continues to evolve swiftly. Remaining challenges include achieving complete elucidation of the non-canonical cAMP pathway that underlies myelination as well as a more in-depth understanding of the receptor-ligand interactions that differentially mediate the cAMP-dependent control of SC proliferation and myelination in vivo. In light of the revitalized concept that SCs myelinate (or not) as determined at least in part by cAMP, there is, in my opinion, extensive room for innovation in addressing the treatment of nerve system injuries and myelin diseases through cAMP-based therapies. This work was supported by NIH-NINDS Grants NS009923 and NS084326, The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis and The Buoniconti Fund.
This research has been conducted within the framework of the joint project ‘Integrated Watershed Management in Central Asia – Implementing an Educational and Research Concept for Capacity Building in Kyrgyzstan’, driven by German and Kyrgyz universities and financed by the German Volkswagen Foundation. After gaining its independence in 1991, Kyrgyzstan was confronted with arising social and economic difficulties. The newly formed Kyrgyz government was not able to provide the population with a functioning drinking water supply system (WSS) and all its connected proper services. Nowadays, many villages in Kyrgyzstan lack adequate WSSs for drinking as well as irrigation water. The present thesis is focused on problems in the accessibility to clean drinking water in rural areas of Central Kyrgyzstan. On the example of the village of Kara-Suu in the central Naryn oblast, the today's structures of the WSSs are examined. Kara-Suu was chosen as a more or less typical soviet-style Kyrgyz village in order to find some answers to the defined main research question: What are the problems in the management of drinking WSS in rural areas of Kyrgyzstan? Most data has been gathered during field research by using the following methods: An overview of the research area was gained by direct and indirect, respectively participating and non-participating observation, on- site inspection, mapping of the water supply system in a GIS, semi-structured expert interviews with various stakeholders and representatives of different authorities, and standardized interviews on the basis of a questionnaire with villagers of Kara-Suu. The study in Kara-Suu showed that after getting independent in 1991, ownership and operation of the rural drinking WSS were decentralized and handed over to the administration of the village and villagers themselves. However, the administration as well as the villagers has little knowledge about management, operation and maintenance of a local drinking WSS, which has originally been planned and managed by the prior existing soviet collective farms. The deterioration of the freshwater WSS in Kara-Suu expresses itself in the fact that much of the water supply infrastructure (e.g. pumps, pipelines, public standpipes) is technically outdated, poorly maintained and out of function due to the discontinuation of funding from the government as well as the unwillingness or inability of the local community and people to self-management. Based on the investigations in Kara-Suu, it can be concluded that the problem of inadequate access to water and its partially poor quality are rather rooted in the poor management and low awareness of local people, than in the physical availability of enough fresh water for domestic use and consumption. The main conclusions of this research are as follows: 1) Only the investment of money cannot improve the situation in the WSS in rural areas; 2) It is necessary to change the attitude of the water user towards water as an economic good; 3) To raise awareness, responsibility and capacity of people to manage the WSS properly; 4) Not only to build a WSS, but also to establish the legal and social institutions that would help to create the needed conditions for a sustainable development and management of the rural water infrastructure.
The implementation of the EU-water framework directive (EU-WFD) demands a financeable and adaptable sewage treatment, creating a need for action especially in rural areas, where the "good ecological status" is often not reached even though the sewage works fulfill the legal minimum requirements. Therefore the construction of new, more efficient wastewater treatment plants is advisable. Due to the precarious financial situation in most rural areas, many municipalities can however not master the necessary funds for an improved waste water infrastructure. A large part of the costs would have to be shouldered by the local population in the form of additional sewage levies, leading to massive socio-economic strain. Hence, different solutions, which are tailored to the socio-economic, demographic and environmental characteristics of rural areas and fulfill the legal requirements, need to be developed. One possible approach is presented in the form of the Dirlammen case study (municipality Lautertal, Hesse, Germany). It consists of 1) biological and physicochemical analyses of the waste waters, 2) a modified eco-balance for the construction of a new sewage works and 3) socio-economic and demographic analyses of the population. It serves as a tool for the assessment of the influencing ecological, socio-economic and demographic factors on the sewage problems in rural areas. These findings can easily be transferred to other rural areas with a similar configuration and thus deliver the basis for a generally applicable approach to these problems. The results of the comprehensive analysis have shown for the municipality Dirlammen/Lautertal that the continued operation of the existing pond sewage plant is, with regards to the ecological, socio-economic and demographic points of view, preferable to the construction of a new waste water treatment plant. With regard to the sustainability principles of the sewage treatment and the objectives of the EU-WFD, existing sewage works should be operated for as long as the sewage treatment is feasible within technical and legal boundaries. With the construction of new facilities on the other hand, the expected improvement of the water quality has to be weighed against the ecological impairments caused by the construction itself. Rural waste water plans have to be developed for the long-term, taking not only the ecology into account but also the demographic change. Possible approaches in this regard could be a shift towards a decentralized waste water treatment concept and-even more important-improvements of the river morphology. But also the reduction of the diffuse pollution from agricultural sources should be considered for the development of strategies for the improvement of the ecological state. Short-term optimization measures in the existing sewage works might also improve the water quality until the long-term development plans can be implemented. In particular the challenges of the demographic change and linked with that the changing requirements for the rural waste water treatment must be addressed by any future plans. Only with the help of such a comprehensive approach the dangers of bad planning and unacceptable socio-economic burdens can be minimized.
There is broad agreement among economists and policy makers that economic growth is nowadays largely driven by the capacity of firms to innovate. The financial and economic crisis that started in late 2007 has had a far reaching impact on countries around the world. Spain has been one of the countries worst affected. As a result, the government has reduced public funding in R&D. At the same time, the continued credit crunch has dramatically worsened the possibilities for financing new ideas and projects. One of the consequences of the economic crisis is that many companies have reduced their innovation-related activities; however, some firms have been more resilient than others and recent studies also show that there are important differences across countries regarding the degree to which the economic crisis has affected firms? innovation investment. It has been argued that national institutional settings and the structural characteristics of national innovation systems have played an important role in shaping how firms have responded to the crisis. However, within a country, regions may also matter. Learning processes underlying innovation are localised and locally embedded, and regional innovation systems (hereafter, RISs) may play a role too. Spain provides an interesting setting for analysing the role of regions, as it is a country with a highly decentralized unitary state with a unique framework of territorial administration. Spanish regions have very diverse economies and also different degrees of fiscal and political autonomy. They vary greatly in terms of their innovation performance as well as regarding their regional innovation and technology policies. Moreover, their responses to the economic crisis in terms of regional policies have not been the same. A focus on regional difference can contribute to a better understanding of the innovation strategies employed by firms during the crisis. To date, we still know very little about regional differences and the degree to which regions have shaped firms' innovation behaviour in response to the economic crisis. Our analysis contributes to this literature by drawing on a large national sample of micro-data for Spanish manufacturing and service sector firms. Our results show that the crisis has discouraged a significant number of firms from engaging in innovation. These have been mainly small firms and occasional R&D performers. Significant regional differences are also found in the degree to which the crisis has affected firms? innovation expenditures, even after controlling for sectoral differences and firms? structural characteristics. The Basque Country stands out in our analysis. Firms with R&D employment in this region show a significantly lower probability of having abandoned innovation activities and a somewhat higher probability of even having increased their innovation effort. This regional effect has been especially important for small and medium sized companies.
The Government of Lao PDR has formulated a National Growth and Poverty Eradication Strategy (NGPES) that links sustainable economic growth, human development, reduced vulnerability and poverty alleviation; and addresses the key issues of public sector governance and public sector management. Implementation of the overall strategy focuses on rural Districts and relies on decentralized authority and beneficiary participation. Health services are a vital component of the NGPES, which reiterates the Government’s commitment to achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and identifies improved access, equity, quality and strengthening the health workforce as key goals. Ministry of Health (MOH) supported by the World Bank (WB) is implementing the Health Services Improvement Project-Additional Financing (HSIP-AF) with the objective to increase utilization and quality of health services, particularly for the poor women and children in rural areas. The consultations with ethnic groups during project implementation is necessary in order to assess whether the design of the HSIP-AF is succeeding in responding to the needs for MNCH services of ethnic groups in project provinces, understand the extent to which free delivery, and outreach activities impact health seeking behaviour of pregnant women and new-born children from ethnic groups and ascertain based on the result of such consultations, broad community support to project activities. The principle of SWOT Analysis was adapted in the consultation methodology. The Consultations however, indicated that ethnic communities were not fully informed of and understood project benefits available to them and requirements for participation. Communication is often particular problematic in areas with language barriers. A higher degree of inclusion in terms of community participation in the identification of problems and ways of solving them would demand bottomup implementation mechanisms and more flexibility to adapt project activities and supplied resources to local needs. The health service providers should preferably be female and members of local communities in order to overcome cultural and language barriers.
Greece's residual type of welfare model is facing the past six years an intense pressure caused by the economic crisis (2008) and the emergence of new social risks. Restrictive policies and internal devaluation process adopted to restructure economy, underestimated the social impact. The State, choosing a different welfare model with emphasis on commodification and selective services, gradually withdraws from the implementation of social policy, seeking, through administrative reforms, to transfer responsibilities to local government, without, however, the necessary funding. At the same time, European Union's social policy, despite its rhetoric and some initially ambitious efforts, particularly with the Treaty of Lisbon, shows inability to create a “community acquis”, which would contribute decisively to the Europeanization of the southern countries. By applying “soft law” measures and always based on the principle of subsidiarity, European strategy is confined, almost entirely, to an application of employment support measures, primarily seeking to improve competitiveness and meet the financial objectives of Monetary Union. The study of basic economic and social EU-28 indices for the period 2008-2012, confirms that diversification of welfare models has a crucial effect in mitigating income inequality and reducing the risk of poverty, enhancing therefore, the dispute over theoretical approaches that support the adequacy of policies related to economic growth. This paper attempts, given the aforementioned conditions, to present the current situation in local government organizations, both from the structures and the financing means perspective, based on a primary research, conducted for this purpose using a structured questionnaire filled by competent executives of all municipalities in the Prefecture (now regional unit) of Thessaloniki. Research findings, though highlighting the efforts to substitute central government's role in an institutional context, constantly under reform, indicate that municipalities are facing significant efficiency problems. Social policy is exercised by different organizational units without integrated strategic planning, new structures which were created primarily to address poverty are inadequate to meet the actual needs and funding is limited in an effort to replace the reduced own resources through European programs, without seeking future alternative sources. The acute lack of human resources and coordination, adversely affects evaluation of local government's social policy. The findings also intensify the concern about structures sustainability and the capacity of municipalities’ overall support, but at the same time detect needed interventions in order to implement an efficient decentralized policy, which will become an essential factor of social cohesion and prevent escalation of social exclusion.
Today's Internet is full of applications by which users share potentially private information with each other. Recently, the privacy concerns of users are rising and users gradually become more suspicious with respect to the use of their (personal) information. In this thesis, we aim at bringing secure multi-party computation closer to common Internet users. The main goal is to design and implement privacy-preserving reconciliation-based applications for multiple users which are secure against passive and active attackers. Additionally, our solutions should be efficient enough to be practical and usable enough even for non-technical users.As a main contribution in theory, we present different privacy-preserving multi-party reconciliation protocols based on an additively homomorphic cryptosystem that are secure against passive attackers (semi-honest model). We also propose reconciliation protocols that are secure against active attackers (malicious model) by applying zero-knowledge proof techniques. The stronger security model comes at the price of efficiency. As a prerequisite, we develop several novel cryptographic tools in the areas of privacy-preserving set operations and zero-knowledge proofs of knowledge. We also analyze to what extent fully homomorphic cryptosystems can be used for multi-party privacy-preserving reconciliation protocols. As a main contribution in practice, we introduce SMC-MuSe, a framework for Secure Multi-Party Computation on MultiSets. SMC-MuSe is a carefully designed framework for secure multi-party computation including an implementation of different cryptographic components, a support infrastructure, multi-party privacy-preserving reconciliation protocols, and two user-friendly applications for the desktop and mobile environment. We also evaluate the efficiency of the SMC-MuSe framework. In particular, we measure the computation and communication overhead of all implemented components within the SMC-MuSe framework. As a third line of work, we propose different application scenarios in the areas of event scheduling, e-voting, and electronic auctions for reconciliation protocols. We examine the practicability of one particular user-friendly application of SMC-MuSe by conducting a user study on our Android application Prefer. The user study shows that Prefer is a useful and very interesting application for today's smartphone users. Finally, we show the potential of reconciliation protocols for common Internet users by conducting a user study on privacy-preserving reconciliation in the Internet. The user study shows that our reconciliation protocols are useful in different application scenarios for common Internet users.
In dit artikel worden de mogelijke gevolgen belicht van de introductie van nieuwe en bestaande toepassingen van Bitcoin-technologie. De transnationale, decentrale en gedistribueerde peer-to-peer-structuur van de Bitcoin-technologie en van nieuwe toepassingen hiervan, hebben de potentie om bestaande sociale relaties en instituties te ontregelen. Het krachtenveld waarin maatschappelijke actoren staan kan hierdoor uit balans worden gebracht. De meest radicale van deze nieuwe technologieën is Ethereum. Met name het concept van de Digital Autonomous Organisation (DOA) heeft mogelijkerwijs verregaande consequenties. Ethereum is een ‘contract validating and enforcing system’, een gedistribueerd systeem dat een platform biedt voor autonome computerprogramma’s die in staat zijn om zelfstandig overeenkomsten met rechtspersonen en andere DOA’s aan te gaan en te ontbinden. Ik richt mij op de mogelijkheden van deze toepassingen als nieuwe platformen voor International Financial (Cyber) Crime.
This thesis brings out the important roles that the public sector finance and reforms play in shaping nations' welfare through providing empirical evidence using new data sets on the links between government spending and inflation, and between fiscal decentralization and development outcomes for the four Asian emerging economies of India, China, Indonesia and Vietnam. Chapter 2 empirically tests the nexus between government spending and inflation for the three countries of India, China and Indonesia utilizing the cointegration and the Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) method on time series data for the period 1970-2010. This chapter employs a bivariate VECM of government spending and inflation and, to address potential endogeneity concerns, two trivariate models with real GDP and nominal exchange rate separately added. The results show a cointegrating long-run relationship between government spending and inflation and that, in the short run, government spending can significantly influence the rate of inflation (positively for India and Indonesia while negatively for China). An important policy implication is that governments in the region would need to be more prudent regarding decisions to change government spending, which can potentially result in large fluctuations in inflation. Chapter 3 shifts the focus to fiscal policy matters at sub-national levels. This chapter examines the effects of fiscal decentralization on economic growth at the provincial level in Vietnam, an Asian economy with rapid growth performance resulting from the comprehensive reform, 'Doi Moi', starting in 1986. Using a newly available provincial-level dataset spanning the period 2004-2010, this chapter provides evidence that fiscal decentralization has had a significant and positive impact on provincial economic growth in Vietnam during the period of analysis. The measure of fiscal decentralization adopted captures both the fiscal capacity and autonomy of provinces. The fixed-effect and the Generalized Methods of Moments (GMM) models help address the unobserved heterogeneity and potential endogeneity issues. Finally, Chapter 4 further quantitatively investigates the effects of fiscal decentralization on development outcomes. Specifically, the two main hypotheses to be tested in this chapter are whether fiscal decentralization had significant effects on poverty outcome and health outcome at the provincial level in Vietnam during the period 2006-2011. Given the important role of the agriculture sector, the chapter also tests for other hypotheses that are concerned with sectoral growth patterns, the contribution of agricultural growth to poverty reduction, and the urban-rural gap in poverty. The main results suggest that fiscal decentralization had a positive effect on health outcomes but, surprisingly, did not contribute to poverty reduction. Another finding is that agricultural sector has made a significant contribution to poverty reduction in dominantly agricultural provinces. Also, the poorer regions have benefited from agricultural growth more than growth in other sectors. Finally, the chapter does not find significant evidence for the urban-rural gap for poverty in Vietnam. On balance, from a policy maker's perspective, while growth-enhancing effects are encouraging, the potential distributional effects of fiscal decentralization warrant careful considerations of the reform agenda so that the poor and the disadvantaged can share the gains in potential benefits.
Tässä opinnäytetyössä tutkittiin bitcoin virtuaalivaluuttaa, mitä bitcoin on ja kuinka se toimii. Työssä virtuaalivaluuttaa verrataan perinteisiin fiat-valuuttoihin ja pohditaan, millä tavoin bitcoin eroaa tavallisista valuutoista. Työn tutkimuskysymyksiä olivat bitcoinin käytön edut ja haitat, toimivuus maksuvälineenä sekä bitcoinin tulevaisuuden näkymien pohtiminen. Työssä tutkittiin myös, täyttääkö bitcoin rahan määritelmän vai onko se vain hyödyke. \n \nOpinnäytetyön teoriaosuus pohjatuu pääasiassa ajankohtaisiin artikkeleihin ja uutisiin sekä muutamiin bitcoinia käsitteleviin kirjoihin. Aihe rajattiin virtuaalivaluutoista vain bitcoiniin. Työssä ei perehdytä syvemmin bitcoinin teknisiin ominaisuuksiin, koska niihin perehtyminen vaatisi niin lukijalta, kuin kirjoittajalta enemmän tietoteknistä tietämystä. \n \nTutkimuksen tuloksissa todettiin, ettei bitcoin vielä aivan täysin täytä valuutan määritelmiä, eikä siitä nykyisessä muodossaan ole korvaamaan perinteisiä fiat-valuuttoja. Bitcoinin käyttö maksuvälineenä joka tapauksessa yleistyy ja käyttäjäkunta kasvaa. Toisaalta on kuitenkin vielä mahdoton sanoa tuleeko bitcoin kasvamaan merkittäväksi valuutaksi fiat-valuuttojen rinnalle, vai jääkö se pienen yleisön maksuvälineeksi.
Italian Abstract: Il tema di questo articolo richiama volutamente la definizione di analisi sequenziale propria delle scienze statistiche, nel cui ambito si procede formando un campione rappresentativo senza determinarne a priori l’ampiezza o la numerosità, che dipenderanno dai risultati ottenuti col progredire dell’osservazione o dell’esperimento. La ragione di questa scelta dipende dalla natura stessa del tema esaminato: si tratta di una materia nuova, in continua metamorfosi degli effetti, al punto da rendere particolarmente difficoltosa la determinazione astratta del campione di studio. Le ragioni storiche ed economiche che, nel tempo, hanno portato alla programmazione del protocollo Bitcoin conoscono oggi un'interessante fase evolutiva negli algoritmi di criptazione per l'identificazione di dati e il trasferimento di diritti, un sistema che presenta risvolti giuridici degni di nota. English Abstract: The theme of this paper is, on purpose, recalling the definition of sequential analysis typical of Statistics where the analysis goes on forming a representative sample with no predetermination of its magnitude or numerical amount, which will depend on the result gained as the observation or the experiment are going by. The reason for this choice is depending on the very nature of the topic we aim to analyse: a new subject matter, which effect are keeping on changing, thus making quite difficult the sample abstract determination. The historical reasons that, over time, have led to the Bitcoin protocol development are nowadays having an interesting implement in the encrypting algorithm for data identification and goods transferring, a system with remarkable legal effects.