This work focuses on the electric power market, comparing the status quo with the recent trend towards the increase in distributed self-generation capabilities by prosumers. Starting from the existing tension between the intrinsically hierarchical current structure of the electricity distribution network and the substantially distributed and self-organising nature of the self-generation, we explore the limitations imposed by the current conditions. Initially, we introduce a potential multi-layered architecture for a Peer-to-Peer (P2P) energy market, discussing the fundamental aspects of local production and local consumption as part of a microgrid. Secondly, we analyse the consequent changes for the different users' roles, also in connection with some incentive models connected with the decentralisation of the power production. To give a full picture to the reader, we also scrutinise relevant elements of energy trading, such as Smart Contract and grid stability. Thirdly, we present an example of a typical P2P settlement, showcasing the role of all the previously analysed aspects. To conclude, we performed a review of relevant activities in this domain, to showcase where existing projects are going and what are the most important themes covered. Being this a work in progress, many open questions are still on the table and will be addressed in the next stages of the research. Eventually, by providing a reference model as base for further discussions and improvements, we would like to engage ourselves in a dialog with the different users and the broad community, oriented towards a more fair and ecological-friendly solution for the electricity market of the future.
Crypto currency is variety of digital and virtual currency on a technology is understood as Blockchain. Bitcoin is understood as peer to peer payment network. Bitcoin victimization payment dealing not needed central authority permission. Here all managing and validatory dealing anonymously payment network system. Bitcoin shows new ways that E cash dealing system. E cash send directly to one user to second user. While not interrupted by the another user. Here even have quicker and minimum fees to transfer e cash. Exploitation Bitcoin all the transaction cryptograpically secured. Bitcoin not provide very safe privacy guarantees, payment communication are saved in a public decentralized ledger. Sanket Subhash Mane "Anonymous E-Cash Transaction is using Bitcoin" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-3 , April 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd30222.pdf Paper Url :https://www.ijtsrd.com/computer-science/other/30222/anonymous-ecash-transaction-is-using-bitcoin/sanket-subhash-mane
Construction Industry is currently evolving around the world. On the other hand, despite the technological advancement across most sectors, construction industry remains amongst laggards in digitalization. Currently, engineering business is facing technological disruption ahead of the fourth industrial revolution; one of which is the blockchain technology! Blockchain is new to construction industry, its challenges and opportunities are yet to be fully realized. This study explores the challenges and potential opportunities of blockchain in the construction industry through extensive review of literature within the blockchain domain vis-à-vis construction business domain. The study presents challenges under three categories (technical, regulation and social), and the potential opportunities in to improving efficiency and reducing conflict through transparency and trust. That will ultimately create value for money in the procurement of construction works. Recommendations are made based on the study finding to advance the research on blockchain applications in to the construction industry.
With the increase in the complexity of the dairy supply chain system, consumers know very less about the products produced or processed by producer or processor. Such information asymmetry present in the dairy industry has serious concern over human health, environmental sustainability, and welfare issues. In this context, we require the effective dairy supply chain system that not only fulfils the information requirement of the consumers but also increase the trust of the consumer on the dairy product they are consuming. The paper tries to present the application of Blockchain technology in the dairy sector. It focuses on the application of the Blockchain technology on improving the dairy supply chain system. This paper presents how this technology can be used in the dairy supply chain system and outlines the potential benefit of it to the different stakeholders and the whole dairy industry as a whole. This is a review article based on the secondary data and information that are obtained from various published articles.
The history of the development of electronic payment systems as a prerequisite for
 the emergence of cryptocurrencies is studied. The most popular cryptocurrencies are considered, their
 advantages and disadvantages are highlighted.
Invoice financing has been a steadily growing component of the financing market as a whole for the last few years, and, in 2016, it became the third largest financing market. Nonetheless, the risk of frauds is still very high, and most solutions proposed so far are based on private, proprietary platforms that cannot match the global nature of such a market. Even the most recent proposals based on blockchain are mainly adopting a private, permissioned blockchain due to the lack of confidentiality in public blockchain. In this article, we propose an Invoice financing platform based on a public blockchain supporting both fully open and group-restricted auctioning of invoices. We addressed the confidentiality issue by storing the confidential data encrypted in IPFS and the corresponding hash in the smart contract hosted on Ethereum blockchain. Our blockchain-based solution ensures data confidentiality and benefits from the main properties of the public blockchain required in Invoice financing systems, such as transparency, immutability, trustworthiness, and security. Furthermore, our platform introduces a reputation system based on the past behavior of entities, computed using the blockchain global ledger. Such a reputation system allows insurance companies to modulate the cost of the insurance contracts they offer. This combination guarantees the complete transparency and tamperproofness of a public blockchain, while it allows reducing insurance costs and fraud possibilities.
A blockchain, such as Bitcoin, is an append-only, secure, transparent, distributed ledger. A fair blockchain is expected to have healthy metrics; high honest mining power, low processing latency, i.e., low wait times for transactions and stable price of consumption, i.e., the minimum transaction fee required to have a transaction processed. As Bitcoin matures, the influx of transactions increases and the block rewards become insignificant. We show that under these conditions, it becomes hard to maintain the health of the blockchain. In Bitcoin, under these mature operating conditions (MOC), the miners would find it challenging to cover their mining costs as there would be no more revenue from merely mining a block. It may cause miners not to continue mining, threatening the blockchain's security. Further, as we show in this paper using simulations, the cost of acting in favor of the health of the blockchain, under MOC, is very high in Bitcoin, causing all miners to process transactions greedily. It leads to stranded transactions, i.e., transactions offering low transaction fees, experiencing unreasonably high processing latency. To make matters worse, a compounding effect of these stranded transactions is the rising price of consumption. Such phenomena not only induce unfairness as experienced by the miners and the users but also deteriorate the health of the blockchain. We propose BitcoinF transaction processing protocol, a simple, yet highly effective modification to the existing Bitcoin protocol to fix these issues of unfairness. BitcoinF resolves these issues of unfairness while preserving the ability of the users to express urgency and have their transactions prioritized.
Abstract A vast digital ecosystem of entrepreneurship and exchange has sprung up with Bitcoin’s digital infrastructure at its core. We explore the worldwide spread of infrastructure necessary to maintain and grow Bitcoin as a system (Bitcoin nodes) and infrastructure enabling the use of bitcoins for everyday economic transactions (Bitcoin merchants). Specifically, we investigate the role of legal, criminal, financial, and social determinants of the adoption of Bitcoin infrastructure. We offer some support for the view that the adoption of cryptocurrency infrastructure is driven by perceived failings of traditional financial systems, in that the spread of Bitcoin infrastructure is associated with low trust in banks and the financial system among inhabitants of a region, and with the occurrence of country-level inflation crises. On the other hand, our findings also suggest that active support for Bitcoin is higher in locations with well-developed banking services. Finally, we find support for the view that bitcoin adoption is also partly driven by cryptocurrencies’ usefulness in engaging in illicit trade.
Youyang Qu, Longxiang Gao, Tom H. Luan, Yong Xiang · 7 authors
As the extension of cloud computing and a foundation of IoT, fog computing is experiencing fast prosperity because of its potential to mitigate some troublesome issues, such as network congestion, latency, and local autonomy. However, privacy issues and the subsequent inefficiency are dragging down the performances of fog computing. The majority of existing works hardly consider a reasonable balance between them while suffering from poisoning attacks. To address the aforementioned issues, we propose a novel blockchain-enabled federated learning (FL-Block) scheme to close the gap. FL-Block allows local learning updates of end devices exchanges with a blockchain-based global learning model, which is verified by miners. Built upon this, FL-Block enables the autonomous machine learning without any centralized authority to maintain the global model and coordinates by using a Proof-of-Work consensus mechanism of the blockchain. Furthermore, we analyze the latency performance of FL-Block and further derive the optimal block generation rate by taking communication, consensus delays, and computation cost into consideration. Extensive evaluation results show the superior performances of FL-Block from the aspects of privacy protection, efficiency, and resistance to the poisoning attack.
Fog computing is an emerging computing paradigm that has come into consideration for the deployment of IoT applications amongst researchers and technology industries over the last few years. Fog is highly distributed and consists of a wide number of autonomous end devices, which contribute to the processing. However, the variety of devices offered across different users are not audited. Hence, the security of Fog devices is a major concern in the Fog computing environment. Furthermore, mitigating and preventing those security measures is a research issue. Therefore, to provide the necessary security for Fog devices, we need to understand what the security concerns are with regards to Fog. All aspects of Fog security, which have not been covered by other literature works needs to be identified and need to be aggregate all issues in Fog security. It needs to be noted that computation devices consist of many ordinary users, and are not managed by any central entity or managing body. Therefore, trust and privacy is also a key challenge to gain market adoption for Fog. To provide the required trust and privacy, we need to also focus on authentication, threats and access control mechanisms as well as techniques in Fog computing. In this paper, we perform a survey and propose a taxonomy, which presents an overview of existing security concerns in the context of the Fog computing paradigm. We discuss the Blockchain-based solutions towards a secure Fog computing environment and presented various research challenges and directions for future research.
Christoph Stach, Clémentine Gritti, Dennis Przytarski, Bernhard Mitschang
A large number of food scandals (e. g., falsely declared meat or non-compliance with hygiene regulations) are causing considerable concern to consumers. Although Internet of Things (IoT) technologies are used in the food industry to monitor production (e. g., for tracing the origin of meat or monitoring cold chains), the gathered data are not used to provide full transparency to the consumer. To achieve this, however, three aspects must be considered: a) The origin of the data must be verifiable, i. e., it must be ensured that the data originate from calibrated sensors. b) The data must be stored tamper-resistant, immutable, and open to all consumers. c) Despite this openness, the privacy of affected data subjects (e. g., the carriers) must still be protected. To this end, we introduce the SHEEPDOG architecture that “shepherds” products from production to purchase to enable a trustworthy, secure, and privacy-aware food monitoring. In SHEEPDOG, attribute-based credentials ensure trustworthy data acquisition, blockchain technologies provide secure data storage, and fine-grained access control enables privacy-aware data provision.
This paper examines the effect of financial institutions management information system migration to blockchain technology on systemic risk. Our study examines a sample of 40 financial institutions around the world. The aim is to identify to what extent the migration of financial company management information system to blockchain system contribute to minimize systemic risk measures through regressions on panel data. We have reached the empirical evidence which indicates that the change we mentioned earlier affect immediately the systemic risk level. Companies that have adopted the blockchain technology recorded a significant reduction in systemic risk level. In addition, financial institutions that have adopted this latter system recorded a significant decrease in long-run marginal expected shortfall and systemic risk index. Keywords: Blockchain; Systemic Risk, Financial institutions JEL Classifications : G21, G32 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32479/ijefi.9069
Introduction. The paradigm of the modern development of economic intelligent systems is associated with the introduction of information technology, technology platforms, protocols, and IoT. Understanding the essence of technological breakthroughs and finding ways to implement technological innovations to digitize economic processes should help solve a number of problematic areas of doing business that focus on improving competitiveness. Methods. The methodological basis of the article was the current principles of the theory of innovation, methods of cognition, which are formed in the main works on the theoretical direction of the theory of organization, theory of organizational behaviour, theory of competition and theory of system analysis. Results. The essence is examined and the feasibility of using blockchain technology to increase the competitiveness of the business and reduce the risks of its business is proved. An idea of the functioning of the blockchain technology has been formed and the advantages based on the principles of invariability and accessibility of the tool have been highlighted, therefore they should work on the safety and efficiency of doing business. The experience of introducing blockchain technology by foreign countries is analyzed, possible applications are identified. The modern vitality of economic intellectual systems requires specialized technical knowledge and skills, understanding of the essence of technological processes and access to databases that allow to combine economic and technological pools of knowledge to achieve business goals. Discussion. Prospects for further research will be concentrated in the field of potential applications of blockchain technology on the Ethereum platform through smart contracts with promising use of artificial intelligence. Keywords: economic intelligent systems, digitalization, blockchain technology, Ethereum platform, smart contract, competitiveness.
Az utóbbi évtized talán egyik legérdekesebb pénzügyi innovációja a bitcoin és más kriptovaluták megjelenése.Ez a fizetőeszköznek szánt befektetési forma ma már mindenki számára elérhető, akár az interneten, akár a Budapesten is megtalálható bitcoin ATM-eken keresztül.Azonban sem az egyszerű felhasználók, de még a pénzügyi szakemberek jó része sincs tisztában a bitcoint megalapozó ideológiával, e kriptovaluta működési mechanizmusával és a benne rejlő kockázatokkal.Célunk az, hogy bemutassuk azt az elméleti problémát (double spending
Open access
Hungarian Social, Economic and Educational Studies
Shirshak Raja Maskey, Shahriar Badsha, Shamik Sengupta, Ibrahim Khalil
With the rise of smart cities, transportation systems are getting smarter every day. An Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) should be secure, autonomous, capable of discerning safeness levels at the roads, and provide services to improve human experience. To reach the gold standard, the ITS faces several issues such as centralization, trust, and data integrity. The Transportation System and the data generated from the vehicles can be intercepted, manipulated and corrupted with coordinated attacks. Moreover, every system might have bad actors who want to manipulate the system or data to his or her favor by exploiting the system. In order to guarantee data integrity, immutability, and availability for the ITS, we propose Blockchain based architecture with outlier detection to prevent malicious activity by the vehicles while preserving integrity in sharing information. The Outlier Detection is designed to reside before the consensus process, to identify and prevent participation of malicious vehicles in consensus process or block mining. In our proposed Blockchain based Intelligent Transportation system with Outlier Detection for Smart City (BITS), we used machine learning to detect the anomaly in the data. The proposed model can be used in various applications of ITS such as traffic monitoring, criminal activity profiling, accident detection and reporting, etc.
Astrid Novita Putri, Mochamad Hariadi, Adhi Dharma Wibawa
Abstract Indonesia is an agricultural country, and one of the regions is Semarang Regency which well known as chili producers. Unfortunately, common issues occurred such as the fluctuation of the stock price and chili, the low exchange values of farmers in prices because of the complicated flow distribution chain. Furthermore, chili is quickly decomposed, but the demand is high enough. The solutions are to predict the demand for supply chain management, to make payment transactions of agricultural needs of farmers by analyzing stocks, raw materials, price to the chain of distribution, also to build trade links among farmers, consumers and Semarang District Agriculture Service. This journal discussed the flow of supply chain and logistics. We recommend to use the latest technology called Hyperledger Blockchain and IOT so that they can make it easier to carry out the transaction process because it is simple, low cost, transparent, faster. It also has high data security, and simplify ecosystems can be easy to exchange information quickly through Hyperledger Blockchain transactions so that the potential of this technology can bring benefits to farmers and consumers by creating the construction of a trusted distribution network that will bring a data transparency solution so that it can become a suggestion for the Semarang District Agriculture Service.
The advent of the Blockchain together with the appearance of the Ethereum platform gave rise to the realization of Szabo's original idea, allowing the implementation of intelligent contracts. Blockchain by itself is a database with certain special characteristics but the potential that this technology acquires with the implementation of intelligent contracts leads us to the conceptualization of intelligent property, internet of things, artificial intelligence, intelligent cities, tokenization of physical assets and properties. This last concept also triggers the possibility of issuing tokens linked to undertakings with sustainable development objectives or "green tokens". The tokenization of digital goods has developed naturally, but the pitfalls -more mental than legal and technological- are present in the tokenization of physical assets, and we will address them in this paper. Del Castillo Ionov says: "tokenization involves taking an asset and, using blockchain technology, issuing tokens representative of that asset, facilitating its negotiation, the enjoyment of the rights of that asset and its governance". We believe that the tokenization of physical assets will allow a new field of action, marketing, transmission, circulation of rights and wealth, as well as a new range of opportunities not only for all legal operators but also for the great mass of capital investors interested in sustainable development, as well as for the home retail investor.
Марат Рашитович Сафиуллин, Mikhail Valer'evich Savelichev, Leonid Alekseevich Elshin
This article explores the potential of using cryptocurrency as universal currency in the conditions of transition of the global economic system towards sixth technological paradigm. The goal of this research consists in analysis of the patterns of co-evolution of the global financial system, technological system, and global economy. Based on the historical material, the author demonstrates how shift in technological paradigms is accompanied by financial crises, and result in the changes of the world financial system. Over the course of time, the gold served as the universal currency, but the advancement of technologies demanded the transition towards more flexible forms of world currency based on the national currencies of most industrialized countries. Currently, the transition to the technology of the sixth technological paradigm is followed by the global financial crisis. The U.S. dollar is not handling the functions imposed by the latest technologies upon monetary systems. The conclusion is made that finite currencies are being replaced by an innovative generation of monetary systems that are based on cryptocurrency. The authors systematize the innovation forms of investment, accounting, keeping and saving of funds, which are based on cryptocurrency and blockchain. It is demonstrated that innovation financial instruments, including different types of cryptocurrency, tokens, smart contracts, and cryptocurrency exchanges, open new opportunities for effective investment in the technologies of sixth technological paradigm. The results of research can be valuable for the government branches in establishment of the policy for usage of cryptocurrency and blockchain for entrepreneurs dealing with developments in the area of practical implementation of cryptocurrency as innovative currency.
We consider the zero-range process with arbitrary bounded monotone rates on the complete graph, in the regime where the number of sites diverges while the density of particles per site converges. We determine the asymptotics of the mixing time from any initial configuration, and establish the cutoff phenomenon. The intuitive picture is that the system separates into a slowly evolving solid phase and a quickly relaxing liquid phase: as time passes, the solid phase dissolves into the liquid phase, and the mixing time is essentially the time at which the system becomes completely liquid. Our proof uses the path coupling technique of Bubley and Dyer, and the analysis of a suitable hydrodynamic limit. To the best of our knowledge, even the order of magnitude of the mixing time was unknown, except in the special case of constant rates.
Abstract The rise of global urbanisation has led to massive pressures on resources such as food, water, infrastructure, and energy demand to support growing populations. It brings adverse impacts on the liveable condition and economic growth of a country if this problem remains unsolved. Smart city is a potential solution to address the challenges of urbanisation by leveraging the technological breakthrough such as internet of things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), machine learning, big data, and cloud computing to facilitate scarce resources planning and management. With numerous connected devices and vast communication networks, it poses a challenges of security threat which cannot be addressed by the conventional cybersecurity solutions. Blockchain offers a solution in securing the huge numbers of connected devices in smart city network. The application of blockchain technology is leading in the banking and financial industry. However, the uses and implementations in smart city have emerged in recent years. The combination of blockchain technology and smart city has offered a great potential for sustainable development. Thus, it is imperative to discuss the potential of these two elements in making the city safer and sustainable. This paper explores how the blockchain technology application can help in managing smart city and achieve sustainability. The findings revealed that there are five key areas of blockchain application in smart city which are smart governance, smart mobility, smart asset, smart utility and smart logistic. A framework for smart sustainable city with blockchain technology is presented as an outcome of this study. It gives a clear overview for the policy makers and regulators of how blockchain supports within smart city framework. It facilitates the transition towards smart and sustainable cities through the use of blockchain.
Blockchain technology is the cornerstone of FinTech. Blockchains offer the infrastructure for online platforms which store information and digital assets. Distributed ledgers are about to be employed everywhere. Regulators have opted for a regulatory sandbox approach which demonstrates the need for efficient private law rules to fill potential lacunae. This paper identifies the crucial parameters for ascertaining the private law foundations of blockchain technology and its applications. Aspects of contract and property laws will be assessed in order to determine whether digital assets are capable of acquiring erga omnes status. This will include a survey of current blockchain statutes and potential negative externalities of a blockchain which might trigger liability of its members.
Innovative technologies, such as distributed ledgers, allow securities to be issued or represented in a new form known as digital tokens. Such "tokenisation" of securities will alter post-trade clearing and settlement, and could improve efficiency in some dimensions. But the fundamental trade-offs involving credit risk and liquidity remain in a tokenised world. To succeed, tokens will need to interoperate with account-based systems, at least in the interim.
THE LAW OF ORGANIZED RELIGIONS: BETWEEN ESTABLISHMENT AND SECULARISM By Rivers, Julian Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2010 Pp. 400. Hardcover, $120.00. CHRISTIAN SLAVERY: CONVERSION AND RACE IN THE PROTESTANT ATLANTIC WORLD By Gerbner, Katharine Philadelphia, PN: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018 Pp. 296. Paper, $24.95. LAW AND IDENTITY IN COLONIAL SOUTH ASIA: PARSI LEGAL CULTURE, 1772–1947 By Sharafi, Mitra Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014 Pp. 368. Paper, $36.99. In November 2018, President of Ireland Michael D. Higgins signed into law the thirty-seventh amendment to the Irish Constitution, removing the word “blasphemous” from Article 40.6.1.i (which prohibited “the publication or utterance of blasphemous, seditious, or indecent matter”). A crime since the document’s 1937 ratification, the blasphemy provision was scrapped after a public vote in which nearly sixty-five percent of participants agreed to its removal. Ireland’s Constitution can only be changed by referendum. The blasphemy vote was one of several such referenda held in recent years. It followed the May 2018 decision to repeal the eighth amendment (which, by giving equal legal status to both the fetus and the woman carrying it, criminalized abortion) and 2015’s equal marriage referendum, in which Ireland became the first country to legalize same-sex marriage by popular vote. Given that the official Catholic hierarchy campaigned heavily against both proposals, these votes were read as evidence that the Church was no longer the primary guiding force for the Irish people. For many outsiders, this spate of referenda—and the changing place of the Catholic Church that they were taken to signify—was met with glee: proof that the arc of history bends toward social liberalism. If conservative, religious Ireland could vote to legalize same-sex marriage, the New Yorker breathlessly suggested, so too could Mississippi (Sorkin 2015)! While some celebrated, however, others wondered how bans on abortion and blasphemy could have survived so late into the twenty-first century. “The population has moved on, [people are] no longer controlled by the Catholic Church, but a lot of the laws that were put in place are still there,” argued Michael Nugent, the head of Atheist Ireland and a veteran campaigner against the blasphemy law. “We have to chip away at them and get the state to catch up with the people” (Graham-Harrison 2018). But what would this “catching up” look like? Narratives of legal and cultural progress in which conservative religious shackles are slowly shed may make for good copy, but they rarely reflect the complicated reality governing the interaction of law, politics, and religion in contemporary nation-states. Indeed, studying the historic interaction of religion and law in named polities—that is, the law’s regulation of religion, religion’s influence on legal norms, and the semisubmerged theological underpinnings of many contemporary legal categories—is more likely to lead to recognition of the contingency of these relationships than to an acceptance of the “tidy stories” in which one is slowly filtered out from the other (Johnson, Klassen and Sullivan 2018, 5). This review offers three case studies as an introduction to historical accounts of law and religion. Focusing on the law’s regulation of religion and religion’s salience to law in post-Reformation England, the seventeenth-century Caribbean, and British-controlled India, these historical investigations of the law-religion nexus shed light on the broader contexts in which states, constitutions, communities, and “religions” are formed and governed. In particular, they emphasize the ways in which legislation concerning “religion” has involved the production and regulation of difference in multicultural, multiethnic, and multireligious states. This is demonstrated by, inter alia, the changing place of the established church in England, where the distinction between Catholic and Protestant has been somewhat superseded by the distinction between religion and the secular; the role of Christian missionaries in the racialization of slavery in the Americas, where legally enshrined Protestant supremacy developed into white supremacy; and the strategic mobilization of the law in India, where the embrace of litigation cemented a distinctive ethnoreligious identity among Zoroastrian Parsis. As all three regions struggle with political polarization and the normalization of ethnonationalism, these works shed light on the historical developments underlying such divisions, offering much needed context for scholars working in and on these countries today. If “law and religion” is a growing subfield of legal and/or religious studies, it is one that raises definitional issues familiar to scholars of both. So notes Julian Rivers’ The Law of Organized Religions, which begins: “This is a systematic study of English law as it applies to organized religions. None of these terms is particularly satisfactory” (vii). Given this difficulty, Rivers’ ability to synthesize centuries of legislation and legal cases into a coherent narrative is impressive. Beginning with the Roman conquest of Britain circa 43 CE, he provides an overview of the legal regulation of religion(s) to the present day, albeit with a focus on developments from the nineteenth century onward. It is an undeniably ambitious project, not least because, as he puts it, there is no clear “constitutional principle” that could be said to govern organized religion in English law (345). The narrative he tells is one of rising religious diversity (and tolerance of that diversity) alongside the emergence of a commonly held belief that church and state ought to be kept separate. By the mid-nineteenth century, English law had begun to move from the assumption that all religions were unlawful unless they were specifically recognized and provided for to the assumption that all religions were lawful so long as they were not outlawed. In this way, the “changing law of Church and State [is characterized by] a slow transition from the maintenance of one true religion to the principle that there is, in law, no false religion” (24). (Another way of putting it, as Rivers intimates, is that all religions are now recogniszd as being equally false, legally speaking.) Given the coterminous fact of religious establishment and separationist assumptions, the Church of England (CoE) has come to function as a kind of paradigm for church-state engagement, normalizing the presence of religion in public life for both established and nonestablished traditions. “This dynamic tension,” Rivers suggests, “has been the substitute for any statement of constitutional principle” (345). This is a story in which religious establishment and religious pluralism, although initially opposed, increasingly rely on one another to justify their place in the public sphere. Establishment continues, but it is no longer the explicitly discriminatory, punitive regime of prior decades. Indeed, representatives of the established church increasingly seek to speak on behalf of those framed, in the parlance of our times, as people of faith (as opposed to people of a particular faith, religion, or tradition)—a sharing of privilege only thinkable in a context where the critical difference is no longer that between Anglicans and Catholics, but between people “of faith” and those who do not so identify. (“Religion,” as former Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams once put it, is increasingly seen to be the preserve of “oddities, foreigners and minorities” by members of the political class [Batty 2009]; and such oddities must stick together.) While this move toward religious pluralism has made it easier for members of nonestablished traditions to organize their worlds according to religious precepts and practices, it has also been accompanied by a “thoroughgoing process of secularization” that Rivers worries will impact this relatively newfound ability (25). In particular, he argues that the state’s tendency to view religious liberty as a matter of individual conscience (as opposed to actions, practices, and community norms and standards) is a troublingly narrow understanding of what religious freedom means (30–36). This strand of analysis runs throughout the book, which is critical of legal efforts to enforce normative, romanticized visions of what religion “is” or should be (for example, through requiring religious organizations to be “publicly beneficial” for the purposes of charity law, or by insisting that these organizations comply with equalities legislation in the same way other associations are expected to). Following an initial overview of the history of English law and religion, the book then adopts a thematic approach, discussing legislation and case law relating to, among others, ministers of religion; chaplaincies; faith-based welfare; and religious schools. Rivers does an admirable job of highlighting the ambivalence that seems to undergird much of the relationship between religious organizations and the law. For example, Chapter Three focuses on what he terms “the centre of the law of organized religions,” that is, “the legal constitution of religious bodies” (72). Historically, this relationship has been defined by ignorance or hostility, at least for nonestablished traditions. Roman Catholic and Jewish organizations, for example, could be easily disrupted by a legal system that did not recognize their institutional structures or social forms. More recently, however, the situation has been marked by a different kind of tension, one in which judicial oversight is simultaneously requested and resented. Religious organizations may seek the protection of the law, but they are also wary of submitting themselves to secular power. Similarly, the courts are keen to protect religious citizens even as they are wary of venturing into disputes that might be deemed “theological.” As a result, today’s English judges are (in theory) less willing to rule on issues relating to doctrine than their nineteenth-century forbears, either these in or to the of a Rivers suggests, not as a of the between regulation and but there are of and as to its If a religious a on an that the as or theological (as opposed to there may be the courts the these judges between theological and legal is, of a matter of A is in the state’s regulation of religious as which one of the of church-state law. the of New a faith-based no longer a historic but have been as of a of a tendency to public to In to with the and other Protestant the state also and the of faith are While this has been by many religious Rivers notes that it has not come state to state The of religious to and that to equalities legislation “the to which the law of is into a in which only specifically religious and As faith are a particularly clear of Rivers’ they efforts to recognize religious pluralism by on a by also secular norms and that as a to these Rivers’ is not only It is also in a of what he the of is critical of efforts to church and state and worries state into religious that although courts are increasingly willing to recognize that religious issues are they to to of the public Indeed, he that and diversity have the to in the one this will influence to the may with the that state efforts to by religious on the of or (for example, as the of are as after at least some of the for such norms from the these could as easily that these religious are by their as that their religious are by the there is a to be made that inter alia, and should be in of religious and Rivers for religious on these he to with the fact that religious liberty for some may come at the of and that is by the fact that religious is place at the same as the of secular and assumptions, on religious organizations not ought to be these would be for not to religious liberty as an In the since The Law of Organized was first religion and have to make is some evidence that judges have taken on Rivers’ of state for example, which held that Christian could not be to a with the the case law Rivers’ view that there is no “constitutional principle” governing this (345). In legal more the situation is For this of principle is A coherent of law would religious and individual citizens to where they what is expected of and from which laws they can For these the of a of religion in English law. For our however, the English case is it a guiding the law is of the fact that it has developed in to political both and to the of tolerance and as to be and to the in religious by the of As Rivers puts it, “The relationship between law and religion in any country is a of historical and England is for the legal likely to from its from the In a increasingly the regulation of religious diversity a and the “law of organized will be an of legislation and litigation long is this more than in the of and religion in what Katharine Gerbner, in recent book Christian “the Protestant on from the and from the through to the late how Protestant missionaries were in the legal of white supremacy and slavery in the More the move from Protestant supremacy (in which Protestant was with liberty and political to (in which although it was deemed with to white supremacy which than religion, had the of In so to of the and and a somewhat romanticized of Protestant missionaries as the of By how these missionaries to slavery to their Christian to legislation that Protestant status was with If their can be as the of the they should also be the long history of for of these to the lot of contemporary white supremacy has its in their efforts to this of This is an As much historical on in the focuses on its relationship to the not for their to such as the and have had scholars a into their As a of those with the for from the these Protestant missionaries and a for Christian slavery that the for the of the and nineteenth focuses on to the of from the to the late In the were that As they were opposed to the religious of those they had and missionaries with By the of the century, however, the emergence of the doctrine of Christian slavery had many such to the presence of some of as a means of and than their a of and legislation to make the case that and missionaries a role in this the for a to Chapter for example, which the for the of the in efforts to focuses on the of named and in New and to the of Protestant supremacy by the of with laws to the of Christian all to make a that they did not seek of any to from the and to their Chapter Christian to the in legislation of the word with the word as a of While have long recognized that from the this by on the relationship between the of and the of In for example, this salience in to the but population of By the late century, some members of this community were for according to English law, to be and Given that could all these to the relationship between and political The result, was the legal of a for this growing community from the to vote or for For example, between and the was rarely in Indeed, it three in years. its between and which the community was in the first of the century. The of the by an As the century, had as the primary of such as the for the of and white and the to and preserve the of legally both and of to the status of a of their religious or cultural While these to place throughout the This the in New and the of which to to the of by a that “the of not the of the as to or While had been a in the legal of those example, as in the case of who for freedom in in on the of and of of the century the of freedom from the context in which the of historical on and slavery in and the focuses on and where were into the Catholic Church against their some in which Protestant and Catholic missionaries and could one efforts at and In this way, slavery in to Catholic Similarly, among the Protestant a role in the different to for the of The Church, for example, in to from the Christian does not away from the and underlying one of the that of While some scholars the for and/or (in to religion by that one one system for it than the of to recognize this tension, a of and how and their in Christian for many some of which would have their recognized the of Protestant some as a way of and as a means of or slavery some will have been of the or of will have involved a of some example, those of have been out against the of or The case of a on in is a of the of for the and of While the the of white named is not It is likely that was by it would social or or not it an had a narrow of The same is true of the many other or with to their was an in a context of and and are “the and missionaries in the and a and religious for a system of This and to the former on which Christian Given the out and by to book is It is an for scholars and to and in our While some have or religious others the law to such was the case with Zoroastrian in the lead up to embrace and of law is the of Mitra Law and in Focusing on of the legal system from to both the of a system of law and interaction with the legal system as legal to law, and the law that controlled them by into the legal system than to English norms or their identity to the of the of them to its and to protect themselves by interaction with the the did the the of of at the of the legal and political 5). by the ways in which Zoroastrian from other in British-controlled circa While and were of law law were taken to legal As they were according to the laws of By the of a century however, the situation was only had the courts to a of law, but they had also some of the and were in English law and both working in courts and them to disputes with their Parsis. in legal was by what a In the century, the community was made up of throughout in where the community was the were only percent of the they made up percent of involved other so in the The is In to being willing to those from the community to were also willing to legalize Given that might have in a to issues the community out of a to interaction with or regulation by the seems to than on or doctrine as an focuses on the institutional that to to law. notes that they did not have at the community A there was no clear hierarchy in and the role was one of than the provision of or will to the the of a legal to or which law was an and subfield of religious (72). other in that recognized law could to had come to from between the and centuries no such of law to which to of their had been in of in other of religious may have been as a of changed the organized themselves into that and for the of legislation to marriage and English legal norms with those that this their system of law, a system by and In marked to the situation and communities, the of which were by a law system that on than were to their community and to their understanding of also how such the law to of particular is of which a role in to the as a of community While the of and in has on of a of cases to emphasize the of studying between This is a to the on and and the cases to this and on and of the racialization of community For both and the century a focus on the of as a of true This is in cases such as the of a was into the Zoroastrian religion at the of was likely was as been to an Christian This a of to seek to from the members of the community could the and the The presence of the would a the of community was the religious and or and on the of the first of the (and a of a understanding of the in held that although could be to the on a was not to by decision an increasingly of identity not only on and religion, but on as as a spate of against those who a light on “changing and religion this For a community that their distinctive identity would unless was “the of the the of of suggests, the focus on as a of the of or could not to the laws they to of the and by But being was no longer the Zoroastrian what was it In as an Given the that so it is no that these so out in (and the role of the law in of it is no that a and of was also a is in of the impact of legal analysis of and individual legal all that made law was not Zoroastrian as much as it was the fact that made also of that “law also made the for example, in the way legal this of the relationship up much less in the and the is to and were not more by legal than is as the fact that is working with historical it to the impact of these cases on an it a not least the religious and or cemented by the law system so in contemporary this with a As will no have not a not in the study of the If has not with in the focus this review on legal to the of law and the of one is that the present on the are with other tendency to between to from one context to or to relationships between and for example, that the present do not the that view today’s as the of the is to in a that its from the and works to them are what is the three is how contemporary much of the historical In England, the Americas, and India, legal disputes on the of ethnoreligious to make In all three the history the by the of a on the of for example, with the legal establishment of in England, as Julian Rivers does in The Law of Organized Similarly, the into the system studying the racialization of slavery in the century, as Katharine Christian the contemporary to the and rule to the law of which Mitra Law and such light of to be the is equally As scholars of law and religion, must be to the both and of of religious and to Ireland’s recent of constitutional who can both The New and Atheist Ireland’s Gerbner, Rivers, and for of law and religion to