Internet of Things (IoT) and Mobile Edge Computing (MEC) technology acts as a significant part of daily lives to facilitate control and monitoring of objects to revolutionize the ways that human interacts with physical world. IoT system includes large volume of data with network connectivity, power, and storage resources to transform data into meaningful information. Blockchain has decentralized nature to provide useful mechanism for addressing IoT challenges. Blockchain is distributed ledger with fundamental attributes, namely recorded, transparent, and decentralized. Blockchain formed participants in distributed ledger to record the transactions and communicate with other through trustless method. Security is considered as the most valuable features of Blockchain. IoT and Blockchain are emerging ideas for creating the applications to share the intrinsic features. Several existing works has been developed for the integration of blockchain with IoT. But, Blockchain protocols in the state-of-the-art works with IoT failed to consider the computational loads, delays, and bandwidth overhead which lead to new set of problems. The review estimates main challenges in integration of Blockchain and IoT technologies to attain high-level solutions by addressing the shortcomings and limitations of IoT and Blockchain technologies.
A. S. M. Sanwar Hosen, Saurabh Singh, Pradip Kumar Sharma, Uttam Ghosh · 7 authors
Blockchain is attracting more and more attention to its applicability in the fields of Internet of Things (IoT). In particular, it is able to store data in unalterable blocks, associated with its secure peer-to-peer in a growing problem of transaction authorization in industrial and service provisioning applications. Moreover, it facilitates decentralized transaction (TX) validation and distributed ledger. The underneath algorithm of TX selection for validation may not be effective in terms of delay of various services of the applications. Because the existing random-based or fee-based selections are a delay insensitive that does not guarantee a minimum delay of a time-critical TX. This paper proposes a blockchain-based transaction validation protocol for a secure distributed IoT network. It includes a context-aware TX validation technique, where a TX is validated by a miner with the priority of a service. Besides, we adopt the Software Defined Networking enabled gateway as a middleware between IoT and the blockchain network in which the control operations and security of the network in a largescale are ensured. The proposed network model has evaluated and compared to the Core network. The results ensure the given priority in TX validation is more delay sensitive than the existing technique to provide quality of service of the network.
The current land registration process involves a lot of vulnerabilities and people uses it to cheat the common people and the government. This paper discusses about a secure land registry implemented using blockchain which works on the basis of majority consensus. By implementing the land registry in blockchain, the security issue is resolved to a great extent. The hash value calculated for each block will be unique as it is linked to the hash of the previous block. The algorithm that is used for hashing is SHA256. Along with SHA256, Proof Of Work(PoW) algorithm is also used which makes the information related to each transaction more secure. Message digest that is generated for each block is of fixed size and each hash represents a complete set of transaction within a given block. The proposed land registry blockchain network consists of 12 nodes which calculates the proof of work. Nodes are responsible for verifying a transaction, mining a new block and adding the new block to the blockchain. A total of 200 land transactions are recorded using the blockchain methodology which offers a tamper proof and updated version of land registry. Elliptic curve cryptographic algorithm is used for signature generation which is used for verifying whether the transaction is signed by the owner or not. Merkle tree is used for linking the transactions using hash and in turn reduces the disk usage. The proposed implementation of land registry using blockchain thus offers a 99% reduction in manual effort spent in record keeping.
Abir El Azzaoui, Sushil Kumar Singh, Yi Pan, Jong Hyuk Park
Nowadays, 5G network is considered to be one of the main pillars of various industries, including the Internet of Things (IoT), smart cities, virtual reality, and many more. Unlike previous network generations, 5G utilizes complex digital technologies such as massive Multiple Input Multiple Output (mMIMO) and runs over higher radio frequencies. The introduction of new technologies and advanced features in the 5G network raises new challenges for network operators, and merging Artificial Intelligence (AI) is one of the effective solutions to address these complexities. However, AI-enabled 5G network engenders security concerns and requires improvement to meet the standardization and qualification of the new network generation. To mitigate these dilemmas, Blockchain must be integrated. Blockchain, as a decentralized methodology provides a secure sharing of information and resources among various nodes of 5G environments. Blockchain can support other technologies, such as AI-based 5G, to create smarter, more efficient, and secure cellular networks. In this article, we present a comprehensive intelligence and secure data analytics framework for 5G networks based on the convergence of Blockchain and AI named “Block5GIntell”. We depict the applications of Blockchain and AI on 5G networks separately and we argue on the support that Blockchain can provide for AI to create smart and secure 5G networks relying on our proposed framework. To support our proposition, we present an energy-saving case study using Blockchain for AI-enabled 5G. The simulation shows an overall 20% decrease in energy consumption at the RAN level.
A supply chain consists of many stakeholders such as suppliers, carriers and customers. It is often complex due to the rapid development of economic globalization and the intense competition pressure in the market which resulted in information sharing within a supply chain to be fragmented. Blockchain technology can solve this problem by having only a “one trusted ledger” that could reshape the element of data trust. The goal of this paper is to identify and understand the impact of blockchain technology for information sharing within a supply chain. The decentralized nature of blockchain technology offers a high level of transparency and has gained the attention from various sectors to deploy this technology. A systematic literature review in the academic literature was conducted using different databases. Blockchain-enabled information sharing can add value to enhance collaborative work in different types of supply chains such as health and medical, construction and smart city. From our findings, one potential impact of deploying blockchain-enabled information sharing within a supply chain is that it ensures all members in the chain can obtain verified information which enhances collaborative partnerships. Through this in-depth research, we highlighted potential barriers that could impede the development of blockchain technology in supply chain such as the lack of understanding of blockchain technology in businesses and conflict of interests. Future work such as information hiding, in parallel with information sharing, could close the gap in deploying this technology within a supply chain. Understanding the nature of different supply chain is also important to better prepare the deployment of blockchain. We acknowledge that our approach in selecting literatures in our systematic review may exclude certain literatures. Nonetheless, we tried to include as many relevant literatures as possible, to develop a roadmap on the current situation of blockchain-enabled information sharing within a supply chain.
The rapid changes in textile and clothing industry's operational environment in which apparel businesses are collaborating with their suppliers and customers have recognized interoperability of information systems as an important factor. The need to address this challenge becomes vital in the context of new paradigms such as the Internet of Things (IoT), and its ability to capture realtime information from different parts of textile and cloth manufacturing value chain by using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags and sensors-based data communication networks. In this process, enterprise information system architecture plays an important role in storing, processing, and distributing data. Despite contributing to the rapid development of IoT applications, the current IoT-centric architecture has led to a myriad of isolated data silos. This paper presents a blockchain-based architecture for the IoT applications, which brings distributed data management to support transactions services within a multi-party apparel business supply chain network.
Anichur Rahman, Mostofa Kamal Nasir, Ziaur Rahman, Amir Mosavi · 6 authors
Security, privacy, and transparency aspects of the Internet of Things (IoT) sensors have recently raised significant concerns among the public and policymakers. The distributed ledger and Blockchain technologies had brought solutions through transparently bridging two or multiple untrusted parties. In this research, a novel architecture for a smart building system, including a control system and automatic approaches, is proposed. An efficient cluster head selection algorithm is proposed to select the desired cluster head with the consideration of low energy consumption and fast head selection. An enhanced combination of IoT forwarding devices and Software-Defined Networking (SDN) technology is further advanced. Furthermore, the proposed “DistBlockBuilding” architecture is implemented for managing a safe and secure data transfer from one surface to another surface. Besides, Blockchain technology is performed for transferring data within the smart building. Finally, the performance of IoT-SDN based secured networks is evaluated.
Electronic health records (EHRs) are health information of patients that are saved digitally in a network. Various opportunities to enhance patient care, performance measures in clinical practice and contribute to clinical research in the future are provided by EHRs. The schemes used to store EHRs have been very insecure in the present era of smart cities and homes. The data can be easily breached by hackers and unauthorized external parties. Also, the data is not accessible to patients and care providers. These schemes are unable to create a balance between data security and data accessibility. But blockchain can resolve these issues. Blockchain creates a ledger system that is immutable and allows the transactions to take place in a decentralized manner. The three main features of blockchain technology - Security, Decentralization, and Transparency make any application built using it secure and not accessible by unauthorized parties. The manipulation of data is almost impossible to do in a blockchain network. In this project, we propose a system to implement EHRs using blockchain technology and make EHRs more secure and private. The blockchain technology will keep control over access to information using its cryptographic techniques and decentralization. It will also maintain the balance between data privacy and data accessibility. Our main objective of this project is the framing of data privacy and security issues in electronic healthcare
Recently, researchers around the world in medical institutions and pharmaceutical companies are demanding a wider access to healthcare data for secondary use in order to provide enhanced and personalized medical services. For this purpose, healthcare information exchange between health authorities can be leveraged as a fundamental concept to meet these demands and enable the discovery of new insights and cures. However, health data are highly sensitive and private information that requires strong authentication and authorization procedures to manage the access to them. In this regard, the cloud paradigm has been used in these e-healthcare solutions, but they remain inefficient due to their inability to adapt to the expanding volume of data generated from body sensors and their vulnerability against cyberattacks. Hence, collaborative and distributed data governance supported by edge computing and blockchain promises enormous potentials in improving the performance and security of the whole system. In this paper, we present a secure and efficient data management framework, named ”EdgeMediChain”, for sharing health data. The proposed architecture leverages both edge computing and blockchain to facilitate and provide the necessary requirements for a healthcare ecosystem in terms of scalability, security, as well as privacy. The Ethereum-based testbed evaluations show the effectiveness of EdgeMediChain in terms of execution time with a reduction of nearly 84.75% for 2000 concurrent transactions, higher throughput compared to a traditional blockchain, and scalable ledger storage with a linear growth rate.
Convergence of physical and digital identity and integration of various individual records, such as patient data, into a united repository remains a serious challenge. On one hand, collecting relevant data can help clinicians, specialists and healthcare service providers to facilitate care for patients. On the other hand, Self-Sovereign identity and the right to control personal data comes into question, because patients do not handle their data explicitly. Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) is a novel method which would allow to securely record time-stamped data and enable patient-driven health and identity records. In this paper, we review the state-of-the-art in Blockchain (BC)-based self-sovereignty and patient data records in healthcare. Our motivation is to investigate the potential of BC technology for use in the patient data and identity management. As a distributed decentralized technology, BC can be very beneficial, giving patients control over their own data and self-sovereign identity. To the extent of our knowledge, there is no literature covering the same concerns. More specifically, the focus is on solutions that aim the realization of holistic BC-based Electronic Health Records (EHR) and Patient Health Records (PHR). EHR and PHR are used to record patient data, such as the doctor's notes upon a visit and radiology images. Hence, they include critical information regarding patient's privacy and identity. Therefore, development of pure decentralized Healthcare Information Systems (HIS) is a great challenge in terms of architectural and technical structure of the systems. Designing robust and reliable EHR and PHR, which represent the foundation of many other healthcare services, relies on carefully finding the balance in a trade-off between many factors, such as level of decentralization, privacy, scalability and data throughput. In this paper, we review the state-of-the-art and provide an analysis on the design trade-offs.
Aleksandr Ometov, Yulia Bardinova, Alexandra Afanasyeva, Pavel Mašek · 10 authors
The blockchain technology is currently penetrating different areas of the modern Information and Communications Technology community. Most of the devices involved in blockchain-related processes are specially designed targeting only the mining aspect, i.e., solving the computational puzzle task. At the same time, the use of wearable and mobile devices may also become a part of eCommerce blockchain operation, especially during the on-charge time. The paper considers the possibility of using a large number of constrained devices to support the operation of the blockchain with a low impact on battery consumption. The utilization of such devices is expected to improve the system efficiency as well as to attract a more substantial number of users. This paper contributes to the body of knowledge with a survey of the main applications of blockchain for smartphones along with existing mobile blockchain projects. It also proposes a novel consensus protocol based on a combination of Proof-of-Work (PoW), Proof-of-Activity (PoA), and Proof-of-Stake (PoS) algorithms for efficient and on-the-fly utilization on resource-constrained devices. The system was deployed in a worldwide testnet with more than two thousand smartphones and compared with other projects from the user-experienced metrics perspective. The results prove that the utilization of PoA systems on a smartphone does not significantly affect the lifetime of the smartphone battery while existing methods based on PoW have a tremendous negative impact. Finally, the main open challenges and future investigation directions are outlined.
Blockchain is widely recognized as a potential disruptive technology that has gained much popularity recently. Despite many promising results, the current blockchain landscape is fragmented, in which many blockchain systems exist in silos. Interoperability becomes a critical functionality to facilitate broad blockchain adoption and starts to attract attention in both industry and academia research. In this paper, we propose a new consensus protocol, Multi-tokens Proof of Stake (MPoS), for blockchain interoperability architecture. The MPoS protocol is able to strengthen the token network effects in a cross-chain ecosystem and grow the user base of blockchain systems dramatically. We also provide an analytical model to analyze and prove that the MPoS protocol can offer better security than traditional single-token PoS consensus protocols.
Mir Hassan, Jincai Chen, Adnan Iftekhar, Xiaohui Cui
The Internet of Things (IoT) has the potential to change the way the world works from home automation to smart cities, from improved healthcare to an efficient management sys-tem in supply chains to industry 4.0 revolution. IoT is increasingly becoming an essential part of the homes and industrial automa-tion; nevertheless, there are still many challenges that need to fix. IoT solutions are costly and complicated, while issues regarding security and privacy must be addressed with a sustainable plan. Support the growing number of connected devices; the IoT is in dire need of a reboot. Blockchain technology might be the answer. Starting as a decentralized financial solution in the form of Bitcoin, Blockchain technology has expanded to diverse areas and Information Technology applications. Blockchain technology and Smart Contracts can address the outstanding security and privacy issues that impede further development of the IoT. Blockchain is a decentralized system with no central governance, facilitates interactions, promotes new and improved transaction models, and allows autonomous coordination of the devices using enhanced encryption techniques. The primary reason for this paper is to showcase the challenges and problems we are facing with the current internet of things solutions and analyze how the use of Blockchain and Smart Contracts can help achieve a new, more robust internet of things system. Finally, we examine some of the many projects using the Internet of Things together with Blockchain and Smart Contracts, to create new solutions that are only possible by integrating these technologies.
Alexandre Pinheiro, Edna Dias Canedo, Rafael T. de Sousa, Robson de Oliveira Albuquerque
The adoption of cloud computing solutions is an established reality in government agencies and in small, medium, and large companies due to procurement easiness and the variety of available services, as well as its low cost compared to the acquisition and management of own infrastructures. Among the most used services is cloud file storage, and the security of this storage has been an essential subject of recent research, particularly customer data integrity. Thus, this article proposes a solution for the monitoring of the integrity of files stored in the cloud, based on the use of smart contracts in Blockchain Networks, symmetric encryption, and computational trust. The proposed solution consists of a protocol that provides confidentiality, decentralization, audit availability, and the secure sharing of file integrity monitoring results, without overloading the services involved, as well as an unabridged reference implementation which was used to validate the proposal. The results obtained during the validation tests have shown that the solution is feasible and faultless in detecting corrupted files. These tests also confirmed that the sharing of integrity monitoring results, coupled with the application of computational trust techniques, significantly increased the efficiency of the proposed solution.
Tonglai Liu, Jigang Wu, Long Chen, Yalan Wu · 5 authors
In a mobile blockchain network, many mobile devices have insufficient computational capacity to execute computation-intensive tasks locally. To tackle this problem, blockchain tasks can be offloaded to edge servers with the aid of auction. However, most auction mechanisms on mobile blockchain ignore the automatic parallel execution and long-term performance. This paper aims to solve the problem of computation offloading in a mobile blockchain network. We transform this problem into a multi-choice multi-dimensional knapsack problem which is NP-hard. To improve the total utility of auction participants, this paper proposes a smart-contract-based double auction mechanism, named long-term auction for mobile blockchain (LAMB). The subtasks can be offloaded from one mobile device to heterogeneous edge servers. Also, LAMB satisfies the economic properties of an auction mechanism. Experimental results demonstrate that, the utility and utilization ratio can be achieved by 130.55% higher and 138.64% higher, respectively, in comparison to the existing auction algorithm WBD. Furthermore, the proposed LAMB can guarantee long-term performance for task offloading, and it can achieve automatic execution in an autonomous and secure environment.
Blockchain technology has been emerged in the last decade and has gained a lot of interests from several sectors such as finance, government, energy, health, etc. This paper gives a broad ranging survey of the application of blockchain in healthcare domain. In fact, the ongoing research in this area is evolving rapidly. Therefore, we have identified several use cases in the state of art applying the blockchain technology, for instance for sharing electronic medical records, for remote patient monitoring, for drug supply chain, etc. We have focused also on identifying limitations of studied approaches and finally we have discussed some open research issues and the areas of future research.
Distributed ledger technology (DLT) stands to benefit industries such as financial services with transparency and censorship resistance. DLT systems need to be scalable to handle mass user adoption. Mass user adoption is required to demonstrate the true value of DLT. This dissertation first analyses scalability in ethereum and EOS. Currently, ethereum 1.0 uses proof of work (PoW) and handles only 14 transactions per second (tps) compared to Visa's peak 47 000 tps. Ethereum 2.0, known as Serenity, introduces sharding, proof of stake (Casper), plasma and state channels in and effort to scale the system. EOS uses a delegated proof of stake (DPoS) protocol, where 21 super-nodes, termed ‘block producers' (BPs), facilitate consensus, bringing about significant scalability improvements (4000 tps). The trade-off is decentralisation. EOS is not sufficiently decentralised because the BPs yield significant power, but are not diverse. This dissertation conducts an empirical analysis using unsupervised machine learning to show that there is a high probability collusion is occurring between certain BPs. It then suggests possible protocol alterations such as inverse vote weighting that could curb adverse voting behaviour in DPoS. It further analyses whether universities are suitable BP's before mapping out required steps for universities to become block producers (leading to improved decentralisation in EOS)
Ch. V. N. U. Bharathi Murthy, M. Lawanya Shri, Seifedine Kadry, Sangsoon Lim
Blockchain technology is a distributed ledger with records of data containing all details of the transactions carried out and distributed among the nodes present in the network. All the transactions carried out in the system are confirmed by consensus mechanisms, and the data once stored cannot be altered. Blockchain technology is the necessary technology behind Bitcoin, which is a popular digital Cryptocurrency. “Cloud computing is a practice of using a network of remote servers hosted on the internet to store, manage, and process data, rather than a local server or a personal computer.” It is still facing many challenges like data security, data management, compliance, reliability. In this article, we have mentioned some of the significant challenges faced by the cloud and proposed solutions by integrating it with blockchain technology. We tend to investigate a brief survey on earlier studies focused on blockchain integrating with the cloud to depict their supremacy. In this survey, we have also developed architecture integrating blockchain with cloud revealing the communication between blockchain and cloud.
Ahmad Akmaluddin Mazlan, Salwani Mohd Daud, Suriani Mohd Sam, Hafiza Abas · 6 authors
Blockchain technology is a private, secure, trustworthy, and transparent information exchange performed in a decentralised manner. In this case, the coordination and validation efforts are simplified as the records are designed to update regularly and there is no difference in the two databases. This review focuses on how the blockchain addresses scalability challenges and provides solutions in the healthcare field through the implementation of blockchain technology. Accordingly, 16 solutions fell under two main areas, namely storage optimization and redesign of blockchain. However, limitations persist, including block size, high volume of data, transactions, number of nodes, and protocol challenges. This review consists of six stages, namely identification of research question, procedures of research, screening of relevant articles, keywording based on the abstract, data extraction, and mapping process. Through Atlas.ti software, the selected keywords were used to analyse through the relevant articles. As a result, 48 codes and 403 quotations were compiled. Manual coding was performed to categorise the quotations. The codes were then mapped onto the network as a mapping process. Notably, 16 solutions fell under two main areas, namely storage optimization and redesign of blockchain. Basically, there are 3 solutions compiled for storage optimization and 13 solutions for the redesign of the blockchain, namely blockchain modelling, read mechanism, write mechanism, and bi-directional network.
Mazin Debe, Khaled Salah, Muhammad Habib ur Rehman, Davor Svetinović
Public fog nodes can be deployed in public places closer to the edge where many personal and commercial devices (e.g., a sensor, an application, or a device) can connect to. These public fog nodes can provide real-time and localized services for networking, computing, storage and content delivery to the connected devices. The monetization and payment of such services is typically manual, centralized, and lacks the necessary trust. The providers of the public fog nodes typically offer fixed pricing models for their services, and the customers manually select and pay for the used services, with little or no transparency and trust in the provided service in terms of the used time, network bandwidth, and quality of service (QoS). This paper presents a novel scheme to enable blockchain-based monetization and automated payment in cryptocurrency for services provided by public fog nodes. The proposed scheme is decentralized, trustworthy, automated, and with certain guarantees for QoS, customer satisfaction, and dispute resolutions through a reputation system. The proposed solution uses the Ethereum blockchain and its native smart contract features to govern the interactions between devices and fog nodes. The proposed solution is implemented, tested and evaluated to show correct behavior and functionality. We also provide cost and security analysis and show that our solution is resilient against major security attacks. Our smart contract is made publicly available on Github1.
Haya R. Hasan, Khaled Salah, Raja Jayaraman, Mohammed Omar · 8 authors
The rapid advancements in computing, storage, communications, and networking technologies have enabled the creation of Digital Twins (DTs). A DT is a digital representation of a real-world physical component, product, or equipment. A DT can be used for 3-D design, testing, simulation, and prototyping prior to the manufacturing of the physical component. Once a physical component is in operation, a DT can be used for configuration, monitoring, diagnostics, and prognostics. It is expected that DTs will gain significant attention in the foreseeable future, and will play a key role in Industry 4.0. However, today's approaches, systems, and technologies leveraged for the creation of DTs are mostly centralized and fall short of providing trusted data provenance, audit, and traceability. Also, data related to transactions, logs, and history are not secure or tamper-proof. In this paper, we propose a blockchain-based creation process of DTs to guarantee secure and trusted traceability, accessibility, and immutability of transactions, logs, and data provenance. Our proposed approach uses smart contracts to govern and track transactions initiated by participants involved in the creation of DTs. Our approach also employs decentralized storage of interplanetary file systems to store and share DTs data. Moreover, we present details on our system design and architecture, implementation, and algorithms. Furthermore, we provide security and cost analysis, and show how our approach fulfills the requirements of DTs process creation. We make the smart contract code for creating DTs publicly available on Github.
Peter Gonczol, Panagiota Katsikouli, Lasse Herskind, Nicola Dragoni
Since Bitcoin's debut in 2008, blockchain, the technology behind the cryptocurrency, has been gaining increasing scientific and industrial interest. Due to the technology's innate distributed and immutable features, the adoption of blockchains on supply chains is one of the most promising recent applications. In this survey, we review academic researches and implementations of distributed ledgers on supply chains. We present the current state of research on the subject and summarize the benefits and the challenges of the distributed organization and management of supply chains. Focusing on industrial practices and use cases, we discuss the technical characteristics and maturity of the various industrial projects. Our goal is to assess the applicability of blockchains in the supply chain domain and to provide a foundation for practitioners and researchers to direct their future projects towards improving the technology and its applications.
Blockchain technology is found to have its applicability in almost every domain because of its advantages such as crypto-security, transparency, immutability, decentralized data network. In present times, a smart healthcare system with a blockchain data network and healthcare 4.0 processes provides transparency, easy and faster accessibility, security, efficiency, etc. Healthcare 4.0 trends include industry 4.0 processes such as the internet of things (IoT), industrial IoT (IIoT), cognitive computing, artificial intelligence, cloud computing, fog computing, edge computing, etc. The goal of this work is to design a smart healthcare system and it is found to be possible through integration and interoperability of Blockchain 3.0 and Healthcare 4.0 in consideration with healthcare ground-realities. Here, healthcare 4.0 processes used for data accessibility are targeted to be validated through statistical simulation-optimization methods and algorithms. The blockchain is implemented in the Ethereum network, and with associated programming languages, tools, and techniques such as solidity, web3.js, Athena, etc. Further, this work prepares a comparative and comprehensive survey of state-of-the-art blockchain-based smart healthcare systems. The comprehensive survey includes methodology, applications, requirements, outcomes, future directions, etc. A list of groups, organizations, and enterprises are prepared that are working in electronic health records (EHR), electronic medical records (EMR) or electronic personal records (EPR) mainly, and a comparative analysis is drawn concerning adopting the blockchain technology in their processes. This work has explored optimization algorithms applicable to Healthcare 4.0 trends and improves the performance of blockchain-based decentralized applications for the smart healthcare system. Further, smart contracts and their designs are prepared for the proposed system to expedite the trust-building and payment systems. This work has considered simulation and implementation to validate the proposed approach. Simulation results show that the Gas value required (indicating block size and expenditure) lies within current Etherum network Gas limits. The proposed system is active because block utilization lies above 80%. Automated smart contract execution is below 20 seconds. A good number (average 3 per simulation time) is generated in the network that indicates a health competition. Although there is error observed in simulation and implementation that lies between 0.55% and 4.24%, these errors are not affecting overall system performance because simulated and actual (taken in state-of-the-art) data variations are negligible.
Multiple-operators (multi-OPs) spectrum sharing mechanism can effectively improve the spectrum utilization in fifth-generation (5G) wireless communication networks. The secondary users are introduced to opportunistically access the licensed spectrum of idle operators (OPs). However, the identity privacy and data security issues raise great concerns about the secure spectrum sharing among multi-OPs. To address these challenges, a permissioned blockchain trust framework is proposed for the spectrum sharing in multi-OPs wireless communication networks in this paper. The Multi-OPs Spectrum Sharing (MOSS) smart contract is designed on the constructed permissioned blockchain to implement the spectrum trading among multi-OPs. Without the need of trustless spectrum broker, the MOSS smart contract enforces multi-OPs to share the spectrum truthfully and designs a punishment mechanism to punish malicious OPs. The MOSS smart contract is tested on the Remix integrated development environment (IDE) and the gas costs of MOSS smart contract is estimated. The performance analysis of the proposed permissioned blockchain trust framework demonstrates that the privacy, openness and fairness of the proposed solution are better than traditional spectrum allocation solutions.