Decentralized Physical Infrastructure Networks: Backgrounds, Architectures, Open Issues, and Case Studies

Abstract

Decentralized Physical Infrastructure Networks (DePIN) represent a paradigm shift in infrastructure deployment and resource coordination, leveraging blockchain and token-based incentives to transform traditional service models. This paper presents a comprehensive survey of DePIN, encompassing its evolution, architecture, open issues, and practical implementation. We begin by tracing the development of DePIN across three key phases: the emergence of fungible tokens, the rise of non-fungible tokens (NFTs), and the shift toward real-world asset tokenization. We highlight representative DePIN projects and propose a unified four-layer architecture comprising the infrastructure, decentralized data, resource control, and application layers, each delivering essential functionality for scalable, interoperable DePIN systems. We then analyze open research challenges within each layer and outline promising future research directions. To demonstrate the viability of our architecture, we present DCEAI, a prototype DePIN platform that enables decentralized LLM inference via edge computing. We evaluate its performance and discuss opportunities for further enhancement. This survey aims to establish a solid foundation for future research and innovation in DePIN ecosystems.